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I 


ELEMENTS  OF  BCTAWT: 


OR 


OUTLINES  OF  THE  NATURAL  HISTORY 


^ilSIiLIl'S* 


ILLUSTRATED    BY   rORTY   PLATES. 


BY  BENJAMIN    SMITH  BARTON,  M.  D. 

President  of  the  Philadelphia  Linnean  and  Medical  Societies;  one  of  ths 

Vice-Presidents  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society;  Member  of 

the  Imperial  Society  of  Naturalists  at  Moscow  in  Russia;  and 

Professor  of  Materia  Medica,  Natural  History  and 

Botany,  in  the  University  of  Pennsylvania. 


THE  THIRD  EDITION, 

CORRECTED  AND  GREATLY  ENLARGED. 


IN  TWO  VOLUMES. 

VOL.  I. 

PUBLISHED  BY  ROBERT  DESILYER, 
J\"o.  110  Walnut  Street. 

1827. 


DISTRICT  OF  PENNSYLVANIA,  TO  WIT- 

Be  it  Remembered,  That  on  the  thirteenth  day  of  Febru- 
CaftfegE'    ary,  in  the  thirty-sixth  year  of  the  Independence  of  the  United 
1&  States  of  America,  A.  D.  1812,  Benjamin  Smith  Barton,  M.  D. 
imJ  of  the  said  district,  hath  deposited  in  this  office,  the  title  of  a 
jS^  book,  the  righ*t  whereof  he  claims  as  author,  in  the  words  fol- 
lowing, to  wit: 

*•  Elements  of  Botany:  or  Outlines  of  the  Natural  History  of  Vegetables. 
Illustrated  by  forty  plates.  By  Benjamin  Smith  Barton,  M.  D.  President 
of  the  Philadelphia  Linnean  and  Medical  Societies;  one  of  the  Vice- 
Presidents  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society;  Member  of  the  Im- 
perial Society  of  Naturalists  at  Moscow  in  Russia;  and  Professor  of  Ma- 
teria Medica,  Natural  History  and  Botany,  in  the  University  of  Penn- 
sylvania. The  third  edition,  corrected  and  greatly  enlarged.  In  two 
volumes.     Vol.  I." 

In  conformity  to  the  act  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States,  intituled, 
"  an  Act  for  the  encouragement  of  learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of 
maps,  charts,  and  books,  to  the  authors  and  proprietors  of  such  copies 
during  the  times  therein  mentioned."  And  also  to  the  Act,  entitled,  "An 
Act  supplementary  to  an  Act,  entitled,  "an  Act  for  the  encouragement  of 
learning,  by  securing  the  copies  of  maps,  charts,  and  books,  to  the  authors 
and  proprietors  of  such  copies  during  the  time  therein  mentioned,"  and 
extending  the  benefits  thereof  to  the  arts  of  designing,  engraving,  and 
etching  historical  and  other  prints." 

D.  CALDWELL, 

Clerk  of  the  District  of  Pennsvlvania. 


L 


TO   THE 

STUDENTS  OF  MEDICINE, 
IN  THE  UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA; 

AND    TO    THE 

LOVERS  AND  CULTIVATORS 

OF 

NATURAL  HISTORY, 
IN  EVERY  PART  OF  THE  UNITED-STATES, 

THESE 

ELEMENTS    of    BOTANY 

ARE    VERY    RESPECTFULLY    INSCRIBED, 
BY 

BENJAMIN  SMITH  BARTON. 

Philadel/ihia,  February  28tA,  1803. 


UNIVERSITY  OF  PENNSYLVANIA, 

The  Lectures  on  Materia  Medic  a,  anci 
those  on  Natural  History*,  commence, ■  anniu 
ally,  in  the  first  week  of  November,  and  terminate 
\n  the  first  week  of  March, 

?  These  are  two  distinct  Course.-;  of  Lecture*, 


yiwwjM  laa-nm  h  miuiy — m 


* 


0B 


PREFACE. 


IN  the  year  1789,  the  Trustees  of  the  College  of 
Philadelphia  instituted  a  Professorship  of  Natu- 
ral History  and  Botany.  I  was  honoured  with 
the  appointment  of  teaching  these  branches  of  science, 
the  first  of  which  had  never  before  been  taught  in  the 
Institution*.  Upon  the  union  of  the  College  with  the 
University  of  Pennsylvania,  in  the  year  1791,  my  for- 
mer appointment  was  confirmed  by  the  trustees  of  the 
united  institution;  and  in  the  year  1796,  I  received  a 
new  mark  of  the  attention  of  the  trustees,  by  their  ap- 
pointing me  to  fill  the  chair  of  Materia  Medic  a, 
which  was  rendered  vacant  by  the  resignation  of  the 
professor  of  that  branch  of  medical  science. 

The  different  branches  of  Natural  History,  parti- 
cularly Zoology  and  Botany,  have  been  my  favourite 
studies,  from  a  very  early  period  of  my  life.  The  hap- 
piest hours  of  near  sixteen  years  of  cares,  of  difficulties, 
or  of  sickness,  have  been  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of 
these  interesting  sciences.  During  this  long  period, 
J  have  never  ceased  to  look  forward,  as  I  still  look  for- 
ward, with  an  ardent  satisfaction,  to  the  time,  when 
Natural  History  shall  be  taught  as  an  indispensible 
branch  of  science,  in  our  university;   when  it  shall 

*  Several  courses  of  lectures  on  Botany  had  formerly  been  delivered,  in  the 
College  of  Philadelphia,  bj  Dr.  Adam  Kuan,  one  of  the  pupils  of  the  great  Lmnxus. 


vi  PREFACE. 

cease  to  "yield  its  laurels  to  languages  which  are  wither- 
ed ordead, and  to  studies,  thatare  useless  or  ignoble*." 

That  period  has  not  yet  arrived.  I  have,  however, 
the  satisfaction  of  observing,  that  these  sciences  are 
making  some,  nay  even  great,  advances  among  us;  and 
I  still  flatter  myself,  that  the  directors  of  our  principal 
American  universities,  or  other  seminaries  of  learning, 
but,  in  particular,  the  Trustees  of  the  University  of 
Pennsylvania  (in  which  all  the  branches  of  me- 
dical SCIENCE  ARE  TAUGHT  MUCH  MORE  EXTEN- 
SIVELY THAN   IN   ANY    OTHER   PART  OF  THE  UnITED- 

States),  will  see  the  propriety,  and  even  necessity,  of 
giving  more  substantial  encouragement  for  the  exten- 
sion of  Natural  History  among  us. 

It  was  with  the  view  of  contributing  something  to 
this  desirable  end,  that  I  undertook  the  arduous  task 
of  composing  these  Elements  of  Botany:  a  task 
certainly  arduous  for  one  who  is  engaged  in  the  prac- 
tice of  an  anxious  and  difficult  profession ;  occupied  for 
near  seven  months  of  the  year  in  the  duties  of  teaching 
in  the  University,  and,  withal,  subject  to  repeated  at- 
tacks of  a  violent  and  dangerous  disease.  The  work 
is  now  presented  to  the  public.  I  cannot  but  be  some- 
what solicitous  about  it:  I  cannot  "  dismiss  it  with 
frigid  tranquillityt : "  but  I  will  not  tremble  for  its  fate. 
Should  the  work  confer  no  reputation  upon  me,  I  am 
still  young  enough  to  hope,  that  reputation  may  be  ob- 
tained by  future  efforts. 

*  See  Fragments  of  the  Natural  History  of  Pennsylvania.   Part  I.  Int.  p.  viii. 
j-  Dr.  Johnson. 


PREFACE.  vii 

I  have  divided  this  work  into  three  parts.  In  the 
First  Part,  I  have  given  a  pretty  extensive  delinea- 
tion of  the  plant,  beginning  with  the  root,  and 
ending  with  the  various  organs  of  the  fructification. 
The  terminology,  or  nomenclature,  of  all  these  parts  is 
amply  detailed ;  indeed,  I  fear  much  more  amply  than 
may  seem  agreeable  to  some  of  my  readers.  But  as 
one  of  the  great  objects  of  the  botanist  is  the  correct  or 
discriminative  description  of  plants,  and  as  such  a  de- 
scription cannot  be  given  without  the  use  of  an  appro- 
priate language  (such  as  the  modern  botanical  language, 
unquestionably,  is),  I  shall  offer  no  apology  for  my  hav- 
ing taken  up  so  much  time  in  the  mere  description  of 
the  various  parts  of  the  vegetable.  If  those,  whose  ob- 
ject is  a  more  superficial  acquaintance  with  the  study 
of  plants,  should  feel  somewhat  fatigued,  in  pursuing 
me  through  such  a  laboured  range  of  words,  I  am  per- 
suaded, on  the  other  hand,  that  some  of  my  readers 
will  feel  a  regret,  that  this  terminology  is  not  still  more 
extensive. 

But,  in  this  first  part  of  the  work,  I  have  not  con- 
fined myself  entirely  to  the  technical  portion  of  my  sub- 
ject. Various  circumstances  relative  to  the  physiology, 
the  economy,  the  uses,  &c,  of  vegetables,  are,  like- 
wise, introduced.  And  although  some  of  these  circum- 
stances might,  perhaps,  with  more  propriety,  have  been 
reserved  for  the  second  part,  I  flatter  myself  they  will 
not  appear  entirely  out  of  place,  where  I  have  introdu- 
ced them.  lam,  at  least,  persuaded,  that  they  will  serve 
to  amuse  and  relieve  the  reader,  in  the  midst  of  that 
fatigue,  and,  possibly,  disgust,  which  the  learning  of  a 


viii  PREFACE. 

new  language  is  too  well  calculated  to  excite.  The 
classical  reader  will  not,  I  think,  be  displeased  at  my 
frequent  references  to  passages  in  the  works  of  the  Ro- 
man writers,  particularly  their  poets.  I  have  introdu- 
ced these  passages*,  because  they  often  serve  to  illus- 
trate my  subject,  and  because  they  cannot  fail  to  enliven 
it.  Although  I  am  of  opinion,  that,  in  many  of  the 
American  seminaries  of  learning,  the  study  of  the  lan- 
guages of  ancient  Greece  and  Rome,  has  occupied  too 
large  a  share  of  the  time  and  attention  of  youth,  to  the 
exclusion  of  more  important  studies,  I  am  far  from  co- 
inciding in  sentiment  with  certain  American  writers, 
who  have  laboured  to  effect  the  complete  banishment  of 
these  languages  from  our  schools.  An  entire  neglect 
of  the  Latin  language,  in  particular,  will  emphatically 
mark  the  era  of  the  decline  of  genuine  taste,  among  a 
people. 

The  study  of  Vegetable  Physiology  has  long 
been  one  of  my  most  favourite  pursuits.  I  have  always 
considered  it  as  the  richest  portion  of  Botany.  I  be- 
lieve its  practical  tendency,  is  highly  important.  It  was 
originally  my  intention  to  have  given,  in  the  Second 
Part  of  these  Elements,  a  general  view  of  the  principal 
subjects  in  the  physiology  of  vegetables.  But  I  soon 
found,  that  this  scheme  must  be  deserted,  as  I  had  gra- 
dually drawn  myself  into  an  extent  of  discussion  (with 
respect  to  the  subjects  that  are  involved  in  the  first  and 
third  parts  of  the  work),  which  I  had  but  little  contem- 
plated!. This  must  serve  as  my  apology  for  the  deficien- 

*  Not  only  in  the  First  but  also  in  the  Third  Part. 

f  My  original  proposals  were  to  furnish  a  volume  of,  at  least,  two  hundred  and 
eighty  pages,  with  eighteen  plates,     It  is  unnecessary  to  say,  how  much  the  work 


PREFACE.  ix 

cies  and  imperfections  of  the  second  part  of  the  work.  To 
supply,  in  some  measure,  these  deficiencies  and  imperfec- 
tions, I  design  to  publish  a  Supplement  to  these  Elements, 
in  which  the  physiology  of  vegetables  will  be  principally 
considered.  I  cannot  pretend  to  fix  upon  the  precise  time 
at  which  this  supplement  shall  appear.  But,  should  the 
state  of  my  health  permit  me  to  devote  the  necessary  atten- 
tion to  the  subject,  I  may  hope  to  publish  it  in  the  course 
of  the  ensuing  summer  or  autumn.  It  will  consist  of  about 
one  hundred  and  sixty  pages,  and  will  be  illustrated  by  a 
few  necessary  plates. 

In  the  Third,  and  last,  part  of  this  work,  I  have  prin- 
cipally confined  myself  to  an  exposition  of  the  Sexual 
Method  of  Linnasus;  to  the  natural  orders  (as  they  are 
called)  of  the  same  author,  and  have  given  notices  con- 
cerning the  natural  and  artificial  methods  of  other  botanists, 
from  the  time  of  Cassalpinus  to  the  present  day*.  Much 
of  originality,  or  even  of  innovation,  will  hardly  be  expect- 
ed in  this  part  of  the  work.  It  will  readily  be  observed, 
however,  that  I  have  taken  some  liberties  with  the  Lin- 
nean  arrangement  of  certain  genera,  particularly  in  the 
class  Gynandria,  where  I  have  followed  the  disposition 
of  the  learned  Mr.  Swartz,  one  of  the  most  distinguished 
botanists  of  Europe. 

If  in  the  discussion  of  the  subjects  which  are  involv- 
ed in  the  third  part  of  the  work,  the  reader  meet  with  any 
thing  strictly  new,  it  is  principally  in  what  regards  the 

has  been  extended  beyond  the  limits  of  this  plan.  For  particular  reasons,  I  think 
it  proper  to  add,  that  the  whole  of  the  first,  and  the  greater  portion  of  the  third, 
part  of  the  work  were  printed  off,  before  any  of  the  pages  of  the  second  part 
■were  committed  to  the  press. 

*  See  Appendix. 


xii  PREFACE. 

ology  of  Vegetables* ,  I  had  not  an  opportunity  of  seeing 
any  part,  until  I  had  printed  off  a  great  part  of  my  work. 
Many  other  works,  as  well  nomenelalural  as  physiological, 
which  would  have  been  of  great  sen  ice  to  me,  have  never 
reached  me.  However,  in  the  Supplement  which  I  propose 
to  publish,  I  shall  endeavour  to  avail  myself  extensively  of 
these  various  helps. 

For  some  of  the  imperfections  of  this  work,  I  may, 
perhaps,  claim  the  indulgence  of  the  public,  on  a  ground, 
which,  to  me  at  least,  is  interesting.  A  very  infirm  state 
of  health,  which  would,  perhaps,  rob  any  one  (however 
ardent  in  the  pursuit  of  science)  of  a  portion  of  his  zeal; 
and  would,  necessarily,  abridge  the  hours  of  his  intellec- 
tual labours,  has  long  been,  and  continues  to  be,  my  com- 
panion. With  respect  to  this  very  work,  I  may  complain, 
almost  without  a  metaphor,  in  the  words  of  Linnzeus  (there 
is  even  no  necessity  to  change  the  name  of  the  disease) : 
"  At  dira  arthritis,  vix  incepto  opere,  ita  una  cum  corpo- 
"  ris  viribus  mentem  et  animum  fregit,  ut  in  ipsa  herba 
"  fere  suffocatum  fuissetf." 


*  Pbj siologle  Vegetale;  contenant  une  description  des  organes  des  plantes, 
et  une  exposition  des  phenol  acne  s  produits  par  leur  organization.  Par  Jean  Se- 
nebier.  A  Geneve. 

j  Philosophia  Botanica,  Sec.  Praefalio— Viennae:  1783. 


PREFACE 

TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 


THE  former  edition  of  this  work,  though  written 
under  many  disadvantages,  has,  upon  the  whole,  been  fa- 
vourably received  by  the  public.  It  has  been  republished 
in  Britain,  and  has  met  with  some  nattering  marks  of  at- 
tention on  the  continent  of  Europe.  Among  my  own  coun- 
trymen, for  whom  it  was  especially  composed,  it  has  not 
been  neglected.  It  has,  indeed,  if  I  mistake  not,  been  the 
principal  Elementary  work  on  Botany  that  has  been  in  the 
hands  of  my  pupils,  and  the  students  of  this  interesting  and 
amiable  branch  of  natural  history,  in  almost  every  part  of 
the  United- States,  since  the  year  1803.    . 

Anew  edition  of  the  work  is  now  presented  to  the 
public.  This  edition  is  much  more  extensive  than  the 
former;  and  though  still  very  imperfect,  and  deformed,  I 
fear,  by  many  errors,  I  may  venture  to  assert,  that  it  is 
greatly  amended,  in  many  respects;  and  in  all  respects 
more  worthy  of  the  attention  of  the  students  and  lovers  of 
Botany,  and  especially  of  the  young  botanists  of  my  own 
country. 

It  may  not  be  improper  to  mention,  in  this  place,  the 
principal  points  of  difference  between  the  present  and  the 
former  edition. 


xiv  PREFACE. 

Th  e  first  part  of  the  work,  which  forms  the  great  mass 
of  the  first  volume*,  remains  pretty  much  in  the  same 
state  in  which  it  originally  came  from  the  press.  Several 
additions,  however,  have  been  made  to  the  body  of  this 
part:  some  errors  have  been  corrected.  Some  notes,  chiefly 
illustrative  of  the  text,  are  added;  and  these,  from  their  mis- 
cellaneous nature,  will,  I  hope,  be  deemed  acceptable  to 
the  curious  reader.  The}'  may  serve  to  enliven  the  subject, 
and  convey  to  him  some  idea  of  the  manner  in  which  I 
treat  the  science  of  botany,  in  my  public  lectures. 

The  two  platesf  representing  the  principal  forms  of 
Leaves,  both  simple  and  compound,  and  also  plates  xxxiv 
and  xxxv,  which  are  attached  to  this  volume,  are  entirely 
new  additions.  They  are  accompanied  by  a  copious  ex- 
planation: and  the  explanations  of  the  other  plates,  though 
not  wholly  new,  are  more  lull  than  in  the  former  edition. 

But  the  most  important  addition  to  the  first  volume, 
the  plates  of  the  leaves  perhaps  excepted,  is  the  copious 
Index,  which  terminates  the  volume.  This  index  will,  I 
am  persuaded,  be  deemed  a  valuable  supplement  to  my 
work:  for  the  want  of  it  was  much  complained  of  by  the 
purchasers  of  the  first  edition.  It  is  principally  intended  as 
an  index,  or  catalogue,  of  the  terminology,  or  technical 
terms,  that  are  made  use  of  in  every  part  of  the  work.  In 
this  respect,  if  I  do  not  mistake,  it  is  so  extensive  and 
complete,  that  it  may  supply  the  want  of  some  of  those 
mere  botanical  dictionaries,  which  1  have  referred  to,  in 
the  body  of  the  work. 

*  The  first  edition  of  the  work  was  generally  comprized  in  one  volume,  but 
was  sometimes  formed  into  two.  The  present,  from  its  increased  size,  is  neces- 
sarily distributed  into  two  volumes. 

f  Plates  xxxii,  xxxiii. 


PREFACE.  xv 

This  index  also  contains  a  list  of  all  the  Natural  Orders, 
or  assortments,  of  plants  that  are  mentioned,  either  inciden- 
tally or  more  particularly,  in  the  two  volumes:  but  it  con- 
tains no  references  to  individual  plants.  It  embraces,  also, 
references  to  many  of  the  principal  miscellaneous  subjects 
of  my  work.  But,  I  repeat  it,  I  wish  it  to  be  considered 
chiefly  as  an  index  of  technical  terms. 

The  second  part,  though  still  small  in  comparison  of 
either  the  first  or  the  third  parts,  is  somewhat  corrected, 
and  considerably  enlarged.  In  particular,  it  contains  a  sec- 
tion, of  some  length,  on  the  Generative  functions  of  the 
stamens  and  the  pistils;  including  observations  on  the  irrL 
table  movements  of  these  sexual  organs,  &c,  &x.  I  have, 
also,  added  a  short  section  on  the  chief  Principles  contain- 
ed in  \egetablcs;  and,  at  the  end  of  the  part,  a  smau  body 
of  notes. — I  should  have  greatly  enlarged  this  portion  of 
the  work,  had  I  not  been  unwilling  to  increase,  beyond 
certain  limits,  the  size  of  the  volume;  and  were  it  not  still 
my  intention  to  publish,  at  some  future  period,  a  small 
volume  on  the  Ph  y  s  i  o  l  o  g  y  of  vegetables,  somewhat  upon 
the  plan  which  I  have  mentioned  in  the  Preface  to  the  first 
edition-. 

But  it  is  in  the  third  and  last  part  of  this  work,  that  the 
reader  will  find  the  most  important  corrections  and  addi- 
tions. Indeed,  throughout  the  whole  of  this  portion  of  the 
volume,  additions  and  corrections  have  been  made.  Many 
of  the  genera  are  now  disposed  of  very  differently  from 
what  they  were  in  the  former  edition.  In  many  instances, 
I  have,  also,  added  remarks  on  the  anomalies  of  the  sta- 
mens, in  regard  to  number,  insertion,  &c:   and  these  re- 

*  Sec  page  ix 


xvi  PREFACE. 

marks,  especially  when  I  speak  of  the  North- American 
plants,  will,  perhaps,  be  considered  as  a  morceau  of  some 
value  to  systematic  botanists. 

All  the  observations  on  the  Algae,  Fungi,  Palmae,  &c, 
&c,  after  page  168,  and  between  this  and  the  Appendix, 
are  new  additions.  To  the  appendix  itself,  I  have  made 
some  additions:  as  well  as  to  the  explanations  of  some  of  the 
thirty  plates,  which  were  included  in  the  first  edition  of  the 
Elements.  The  new  plates,  of  which  mention  in  presently 
to  be  made,  are  of  course  accompanied  by  new  explana- 
tory matter. 

The  volume  is  terminated  by  an  Index  of  the  princi- 
pal vegetables  which  are  mentioned  in  the  work,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  third  part.  In  this  index,  both  the  scientific 
and  English  and  provincial  names  of  the  plants  are  given: 
and  although  this  catalogue  is  less  extensive  than  I  could 
wish  it  were,  it  cannot  fail  to  be  of  essential  use  to  the 
student  in  aiding  him  in  his  investigations  into  the  posi- 
tion or  arrangement  of  many  of  the  plants,  concerning 
which  he  may  wish  to  obtain  information. 

The  first  edition  of  this  work  contained  thirty  plates: 
the  present  is  enriched  by  ten  additional  plates.  Some  of 
these  will,  I  flatter  myself,  be  found  valuable  and  impor- 
tant; or  at  least  of  great  use  to  the  young  student  of  bota- 
ny. They  are  all  original  plates,  and  some  of  them  after 
drawings  done  by  artists  of  the  first  character.  Such,  in 
particular,  are  plates  xxxi,  xxxii,  xxxiii,  xxxiv,  xxxvi. 

Besides  the  addition  of  these  ten  new  plates,  impor- 
tant additions  have  been  made  to  some  of  those  which  ac- 
companied the  first  edition  of  the  work.  Such  additions  will 


PREFACE.  xvii 

•*■* 
be  found  in  plates  v,xiv,  xx,  xxi,xxvi,  and  xxx:  and  others 

of  the  plates,  to  which  no  additions,  properly  so  called,  have 

been  made,  have  been,  in  some  measure,  improved  by  the 

hand  of  the  engraver.    Plate  i,  in  particular,  is  materially 

improved. 

*****     * 

It  now  only  remains  for  me  to  request  a  candid  ex- 
amination of  this  work  by  the  public;  and  especially  by 
those  to  whom  the  number  and  variety  of  my  professional 
engagements,  and  of  my  literary  pursuits,  may  not  be 
known.  It  is  a  fact,  that  the  work,  originally  begun  and 
written  in  sickness,  has  been  carried  on  to  its  present  im- 
proved and  enlarged  state,  in  the  intervals  between  my 
laborious  attentions  to  the  duties  of  my  profession  as  a 
physician,  and  those  as  a  lecturer  on  three  great  branches 
of  science  in  the  University;  on  Materia  Medic  a,  Bo- 
tany, and  Zoology;  and  while  I  have  been  occupied  in 
attending  to  the  printing  of  several  other  works,  much  more 
original  in  their  nature,  and  from  which  I  venture  to  pro- 
mise myself  a  more  solid  reputation:  viz.  two  distinct 
Florae,  one  of  six  of  the  states  of  the  American  Union*; 
one  of  the  state  of  Virginiaf:  a  work  on  the  Geography  of 
the  North- American  trees  and  shrubs;  an  elementary  work" 
on  Zoology;  and,  lastly,  a  volume  on  the  original,  the  migra- 
tions, the  religious  and  political  institutions,  the  languages, 
&.c,  of  the  Indians  of  North- America;  besides  some  me- 
moirs on  minor  or  more  individual  subjects.  All  these 
works  are  actually,  at  this  time,  in  the  press:  and  some  of 
them  are  nearly  finished. 

*  Prodromus  of  a  Flora  of  die  states  of  New-York,  JSfew-Jefsey*,  Pern  - 
\ania,  Delaware,  .Maryland,  and  Virginia:  illustrated  by  plates 

f  Flora  Virgimca,  &c 


xviii  PREFACE. 

To  my  Pupils,  whether  those  who  have  been  under  m> 
immediate  direction,  or  those  with  whom  I  have  had  merely 
intercourse  in  my  capacity  of  a  public  professor,  I  offer  no 
formal  apologies  for  the  imperfections  of  this  work.  Most 
of  my  Eleves  have  manifested  a  disposition  to  view  my 
literary  labours  with  tenderness  and  candour:  and  from 
many, — very  many, — of  them  I  have  received  acts  of 
kindness,  of  friendship,  and  almost  filial  affection,  which 
have  constituted  not  a  little  of  my  happiness;  and  the  re- 
membrance of  which, — if  memory  remain, — will  not  fail 
to  cheer  and  solace  me  in  the  most  gloomy  walks  to  which 
I  may  be  destined,  in  the  remainder  of  my  life. 

March  37th.  1811. 


ELEMENTS  of  BOTANY. 


PART  FIRST. 


**  But  not  alike  to  every  mortal  eye 

"  Is  this  great  scene  unveil'd.  For  since  the  claims 

"  Of  social  life,  to  different  labours  urge 

"  The  active  powers  of  man ;  with  wise  intent 

"  The  hand  of  Nature  on  peculiar  minds 

"  Imprints  a  different  bias,  and  to  each 

"  Decrees  its  province  in  the  common  toil. 

"  To  some  she  taught  the  fabric  of  the  sphere, 

"  The  changeful  moon,  the  circuit  of  the  stars, 

"  The  golden  zones  of  heaven:  to  some  she  gave 

"  To  weigh  the  moment  of  eternal  things, 

"  Of  time,  and  space,  and  fate's  unbroken  chain, 

"  And  will's  quick  impulse:  others  by  the  hand 

"  She  led  o'er  vales  and  mountains,  to  explore 

"  What  healing  virtue  swells  the  tender  veins 

"  Of  herbs  and  flowers;  or  what  the  beams  of  mors 

"  Draw  forth,  distilling  from  the  clifted  rind 

"  In  balmy  tears.  But  some  to  higher  hopes 

"  Were  destin'd." 

THE  PLEASURES  OF  IMAGINATION. 
Book  I.  1.  79—97- 


ELEMENTS  of  BOTANY. 


"  Nee  dubitamus,  multa  esse,  qux  &  nos  pr!eterierint.   Homines  enim 
sumus  &  occupati  officiis."  C.  PLINI1  SECUNDI 

Naturalis  Historic  Lib.  I. 


JLlNNiEUS  has  made  a  general  division  of  the 
plant,  or  vegetable,  into  three  parts,  viz.  the  Radix, 
the  Herb  a,  and  the  Fructificatio.  Of  each  of  these 
parts,  and  of  their  various  subordinate  divisions,  I 
shall  speak  in  the  order  in  which  I  have  mentioned  them. 
I  prefer  this  order  in  treating  my  subject.,  as  being  more 
natural,  or  at  least  more  facile  and  more  simple,  than 
that  of  those  writers  who  begin  their  delineation  of  ve- 
getables with  an  account  of  the  fructification.  In  the 
very  commencement  of  my  subject,  at  least,  I  follow 
the  "Swedish  Sage"*. 


Section   I. 

OF  THE  ROOT. 

Th  e  Radix,  or  Root,  is  the  lower  part  of  the  vege- 
table, which  is  generafly  attached  to  the  earth,  from 
which  it  derives  various  nutritious  principles,  which  it 

*  See  bis  Philosophia  Botanica,  &c.  p.  37. 


4  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

conveys  to  every  part  of  the  plant.     It  supports  the 
Herba  and  the  Fructificatio. 

The  root  consists  of  two  parts,  which  are  denomi- 
nated Caudex*  and  lladicula\.  By  the  term  caudex, 
Linnaeus  means  the  stock,  or  main  body  of  the  root; 
and  by  the  term  radicula,  the  stringy  or  fibrous  part  of 
the  root,  which,  in  the  greater  number  of  vegetables, 
terminates  the  main  root,  and  is  supposed  to  be  that 
part  of  the  root  which  is  especially  concerned  in  ab- 
sorbing nourishment  from  the  earth. 

In  the  language  of  Linnaeus,  the  caudex  is  either 
descending  or  ascending.  The  caudex  descendens,  or 
descending  caudex,  strikes  gradually  downward  into 
the  ground,  and  puts  forth  radicles,  or  small  fibres,  which 
are  generally  regarded  as  the  principal  and  really  essen- 
tial part  of  every  root.  The  caudex  ascendens,  or  as- 
cending caudex,  is  that  part  of  the  root  which  gradually 
raises  itself  above  the  ground,  serving  frequently  the 
place  of  a  trunk  or  stem,  and  produces  the  herb.  It  is  the 
descending  caudex  only  which  entirely  corresponds  to 
the  term  radix,  or  root,  as  it  is  employed  by  other  bo- 
tanists. The  term  caudex  ascendens  corresponds,  in 
some  measure,  to  the  caudex  of  Malpighi,  and  other 
naturalists,  who,  following  the  authority  of  classical  wri- 
ters, designate  by  this  name,  the  stem,  trunk,  or  bole  of 
a  tree. 

The  distinction  of  Linnaeus  is,  at  least,  ingenious. 
It  is  founded  upon  this  fact,  that  trees  and  shrubs,  when 

•  Caudex,  from  c&do,  to  cut  down. 

\  Radicula,  strictly  speaking,  a  little  root. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  5 

they  are  inverted,  put  forth  leaves  from  the  descending1 
caudex,  or  proper  root;  and  radicles,  or  roots,  from  the 
ascending  caudex,  or  stem.  Accordingly,  the  Swedish 
naturalist  considers  trees  and  shrubs  "  as  roots  above 
ground*." 

In  a  philosophical  analysis  of  the  vegetable,  this 
may,  perhaps,  be  a  just  view  of  the  subject:  but  it  is  not 
probable,  that  the  distinction  of  the  great  naturalist  will 
ever  be  generally  admitted  by  the  bulk  of  mankind ;  not 
even  by  those  who  are  somewhat  accustomed  to  specu- 
late upon  the  nature  of  plants.  We  have  so  long  been  in 
the  habit  of  regarding  as  the  root,  only  that  part  of  the 
vegetable  which  is  buried  under,  or  is  immediately  in 
connection  with,  the  earthf,  that  it  will  be  a  difficult  mat- 
ter to  bring  ourselves  to  think,  that  the  stem  or  bole  of  a 
tree  can,  with  strict  propriety,  be  considered  as  a  part  of 
its  root. 

The  botanists  have  described  various  species  of 
roots.  I  shall  treat  of  the  principal  of  them,  under  the 
following  heads :  viz.  1.  of  Roots,  in  respect  to  former 
shape  :  2.  of  Roots,  in  respect  to  their  direction,  or  man- 
ner of  growth  :  3.  of  Roots,  in  respect  to  their  duration: 
and,  lastly,  I  shall  add  some  miscellaneous  circumstan- 
ces, concerning  the  natural  history  of  roots,  reserving, 
however,  the  completion  of  the  subject  for  the  second 
and  third  parts  of  these  Elements. 


*  "  Arbores  Fruticesque  omnes  itaque  sunt  Radices  supra  terram.  Ergo  Arbor 
"  verticaliter  inverse,  e  caudice  descendente,  fert  Folia,  ex  adsendente  Radiculas." 
Philosophia  Botanica,  &c.  p.  39. 

t  To  this  idea,  however,  there  are  exceptions,  which  I  shall  not  omit  to  notice. 


6       ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

5.  I. 

Of  Roots,  in  respect  to  their  form,  or  shape. 

Roots,  with  respect  to  their  form  or  shape,  may 
principally  be  referred  to  the  following  species,  or  per- 
haps more  properly  varieties:  viz.  1.  Radix  fibrosa'. 
2.  Radix  fusif or  mis  :  3.  Radix  tuberosa:  4.  Radix 
pramorsa:  5.  Radix  granulata;  and,  6.  Radix  bul- 
bosa. 

1.  The  radix  fibrosa,  or  fibrous  root,  consists  entire- 
ly, or  principally,  of  a  number  of  fibrous  radicles,  each  of 
which  is  more  slender  than  the  base  of  the  trunk  or  stem, 
to  which  it  is  attached.  The  greater  number  of  the 
Gramina,  or  Grasses,  such  as  the  Wheat,  the  Rye,  the 
Oat,  the  Barley,  the  Rice,  &c.  furnish  us  with  the  best 
examples  of  this  form  of  root.  In  the  grasses,  the  fibres 
proceed  from  a  small  knot  at  the  base  of  the  stem.  This 
kind  of  root,  consisting  of  very  slender  fibres,  is  some- 
times denominated  Radix  capillacea*\  or  the  hairy  root. 

The  term  fibrous  root  comprehends  a  very  great 
number  of  roots,  which,  as  being  more  slender  than  the 
base  of  the  stem  or  bole,  may,  with  propriety,  be  arrang- 
ed under  this  head.  Such  are  the  roots  of  the  greater 
number  of  trees  and  shrubs. 

2.  The  radix  fusiformis,  called  in  English  fusiform 
or  spindle-shaped  rootf,  is  a  species  of  root,  which  ta- 

*  From  Capilhis,  a  hair. 

t  The  fusiform-root  is  best  known,  in  main  parts  of  the  United-States,  by  the 
name  of"  tap-root."   There  can,  I  believe,  be  little  doubt,  that  the  earlier  settlers 


.      ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  7 

pers  from  above  downwards  to  a  point,  more  or  less 
slender.  The  radicles,  strings,  or  fibres,  are  commonly 
disposed  over  the  whole  surface  of  the  stock,  or  principal 
root.  We  have  examples  of  this  species  of  root  in  the 
Carrot,  the  Parsnip,  the  Hemlock,  the  Radish,  Horse- 
radish, and  many  others.  Cultivation  frequently  changes 
the  spindle-shaped  root  into  a  round,  knobbed,  or  tuber- 
ous root.  This  has  been  particularly  observed  in  some 
of  the  umbelliferous  plants. 

3.  The  radix  tuberosa,  tuberous  or  knobbed  root, is  a 
hard,  solid  and  fleshy  root,  which,  in  general,  is  thicker 
than  the  base  of  the  stem  to  which  it  is  attached.  It  con- 
sists either  of  one  knob,  as  in  the  common  Turnip,  or  of 
many  such  knobs  collected,  by  means  of  a  number  of  slen- 
der strings  or  filaments,  into  a  bunch,  as  in  the  Paeony, 
Sun-flower,  Drop-wort,  Potatoe,  and  many  others.  The 
radicles,  or  fibrous  strings,  are  dispersed  over  every 
part  of  the  tuberous  root;  whereas  in  the  bulbous  roots, 
afterwards  to  be  mentioned,  the  radicles  are  entirely  con- 
fined to  the  bottom  of  the  root. 

Some  of  the  tuberous  roots,  such  as  those  of  the 
Arum,  Orchis,  Moschatelline,  and  others,  emit  their  ra- 
dicles at  the  top,  from  a  knot  formed  between  the  stem 
and  the  thicker  part  of  the  root.  Such  roots  have  been 
called  Radices  comosa*,  from  a  fancied  resemblance  of 
the  fibres,  which  I  have  mentioned,  to  a  bunch  of  hair. 

4.  The  radix  praemorsa,  for  which  there  is  no  very 
appropriate  English  name,  is  a  species  of  root,  which 

of  the  then  British  colonies  introduced  this  word  from  England.     It  is,  however, 
curious,  and  may  not  be  improper  to  observe,  that  tap-pee  is  the  name  for  the  root  of 
any  vegetable  in  the  language  of  several  of  our  Indian  tribes. 
*  From  Coma,  a  bush  or  head  of  hair. 


8  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

does  not  taper,  but  ends  (abruptly)  blunt,  and  thus  ap- 
pears as  though  it  were  bitten  off  short  at  the  end. 
Hence,  perhaps,  it  might,  not  improperly,  be  called  the 
bitten  root.  The  Scabiosa,  or  Scabious,  the  Plantago, 
or  Plantain,  the  Valeriana,  or  Valerian,  and  some  other 
plants,  furnish  us  with  examples  of  this  form  of  root. 

5.  The  radix  granulata,  or  granulate  root,  consists 
of  several  little  tubers,  or  fleshy  knobs,  which  some- 
what resemble  grains  of  corn.  The  Saxifraga  granula- 
ta, or  White  Saxifrage,  of  the  English,  exhibits  one  of 
the  best  examples  of  this  kind  of  root. 

6.  The  radix  bulbosa,  or  bulbous  root,  is  the  last 
species  of  root  which  I  have  mentioned.  This  form  of 
root,  which  Linnaeus  calls  Bulbus,  is,  perhaps,  more  pro- 
perly speaking,  a  large  bud,  situated  under  ground.  It  en- 
closes and  protects  the  future  plant,  several  generations* 
of  which  lie  enveloped  in  it,  until  they  are  unfolded  by 
the  action  of  water,  or  other  fit  alimentary  stimulus. 
Linnaeus  calls  this  part,  as  he  also  does  the  true  buds  of 
trees  and  shrubs,  the  Hybernaculum,  or  winter-quarters 
of  the  plant.  He  does  not  consider  the  bulbus  as  a  spe- 
cies of  root.  Many  respectable  botanists  have  implicitly 
adopted  the  Linnaean  opinion  on  this  head. 

The  bulbus  consists  of  two  parts,  viz.  the  bulbus, 
properly  so  called,  and  the  radicula,  or  radicle.  This 
last  is  considered,  by  Linnaeus,  as  a  true  root,  or  fibrous 
appendage,  arising  from  the  lower  part  of  the  bulb,  by 
which  it  is  attached  to  the  earth,  in  which  it  grows. 

*  This  subject  will  be  particularly  attended  to  in  treating  of  the  generation  of 
vegetables.  See  Part  II.  At  present,  however,  it  may  not  be  improper  to  observe, 
that  in  the  bulb  of  the  Hyacinth  four  distinct  generations  of  future  plants  have 
been  observed 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  9 

These  radicles  may,  it  is  thought,  be  considered  as  so 
many  absorbing  vessels,  by  which  the  various  alimen- 
tary matters  of  the  plant  are  conveyed,  through  the  bulb, 
to  every  part  of  the  stem,  leaves,  flowers,  &c.  Actual 
experiments,  however,  show,  that  the  radicles,  or  cy- 
lindrical fibres,  of  certain  bulbous-rooted  plants,  such 
as  the  Hyacinth,  are  by  no  means  necessary  to  the  full 
growth  and  perfection  of  these  plants.  This  has  been 
proved  by  the  Marquis  de  S.  Simon,  in  his  work  on 
Hyacinths*.  This  writer  considers  the  radicles  rather 
as  exhaling,  than  as  absorbing  organs;  and  asserts,  that 
it  is  the  middle  part  of  the  bulb  which  is  endued  with 
the  absorbing  power. 

Four  different  kinds  of  bulbs  are  described  by  Lin- 
naeus :  viz.  1.  Bidbus  squamosus  :  2.  Bulbus  solidus: 
5.  Bulbus  tunicatus;  and,  4.  Bulbus  articulatus. 

1.  The  bulbus  squamosus,  which  in  English  we 
may  call  a  squamose  or  scaly  bulb,  consists  of  a  num- 
ber of  imbricated  lamellae,  thin  plates,  or  scales,  which 
are  laid  over  each  other,  somewhat  in  the  manner  of 
tiles  upon  a  house.  Different  species  of  Lilies  furnish  us 
with  examples  of  this  beautiful  kind  of  bulb. 

2.  The  bulbus  solidus,  or  solid  bulb,  consists  of  one 
solid  and  fleshy  substance.  The  Tulip  is  said,  by  Lin- 
naeus, and  many  of  his  followers,  to  supply  us  with  an 
instance  of  this  kind  of  bulb.  I  cannot,  however,  consi- 
der the  bulb  of  the  Tulip  as  a  solid  bulb.  Carefully  ex- 
amined, it  evidently  appears  to  be  a  true  coated  bulb. 
Professor  Ludwig  has  adduced  the  common  Crocus,  or 

% 

Printed,  at  Amsterdam,  in  176^ 
C 


10  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

Saffron,  as  an  example  of  the  solid  bulb.  But  even  this, 
upon  minute  examination,  appears  to  consist  of  a  num- 
ber of  tunics,  or  coats,  some  of  which  (the  exterior  ones) 
spontaneously  separate  from  one  another ;  and  the  inter- 
nal ones,  though  thicker,  may,  with  ease,  be  separated. 
Indeed,  some  respectable  writers  have  doubted,  whether 
a  true  solid  bulb,  in  the  Linnaean  sense  of  the  word,  does 
exist. 

3.  The  bulbus  tunicatus,  the  tunicated  or  coated 
bulb,  consists  of  a  number  of  tunics,  or  coats,  which  are 
regularly  laid  over  each  other.  The  common  Onion,  the 
Amaryllis, and  many^ther  plants, furnish  instances  of  this 
species  of  bulb.  The  coats  of  this  kind  of  bulb  are  some- 
times very  thick  and  succulent,  insomuch  that  they  are 
sufficient  to  make  the  plant  vegetate,  without  the  aid  of 
earth  or  water.  Thus,we  often  observe  the  officinal  Squill, 
as  it  lies  in  the  shops  of  the  apothecaries,  protruding 
both  vigorous  stems  and  flowers. 

4.  The  bulbus  articulatus,  the  articulated  or  joint- 
ed bulb,  consists  of  lamellae,  that  are  linked  or  chained 
togther,as  in  the  Lathraea  Squamaria,  or  Tooth- wort,  the 
Adoxa  Moschatellina,  or  Tuberous  Moschatel,  and  the 
Martynia. 

5.  Linnaeus  also  makes  mention  of  a  Bulbus  du- 
pl'icatus.  This  name  is  applied  to  certain  roots,  which 
have  two  bulbs  connected  together.  Some  species  of 
Or  chides  furnish  us  with  the  best  examples  of  this  kind  of 
root.  Such  is  the  Ophrys,  which  is  called,  in  some  parts 
of  the  United-States,  by  the  ridiculous  name  of  "  Adam 
and  Eve."  Where  two  bulbs  are  thus  united  together, 
it  is  commonly  observed,  that  one  of  them  is  light, 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  1 1 

empty,  and  swims  upon  the  surface  of  the  water;  whilst 
the  other,  which  is  solid,  sinks  by  reason  of  its  weight. 
From  the  former,  the  plant  of  the  present  year  has  pro- 
ceeded, whilst  the  latter  contains  the  bud  of  the  future 
rear*.  4R* 

Lin  njeus,  it  has  been  observed, does  not  consider  as  a 
true  root  any  of  the  species  of  bulb, which  I  have  mention- 
ted.  He  views  them  as  large  buds  situated  under  ground, 
protecting  the  embryo  from  the  severity  of  the  winter, 
and  from  other  injurious  causes.  That  the  bulb  does, 
like  a  true  bud,  actually  enclose  the  tender  embryo,  I 
shall  not  attempt  to  denyf.  But  Lcannot  convince  my- 
self, that  this  is  a  sufficient  reason  for  asserting,  that  the 
bulb  is  not,  in  reality,  a  species  of  root.  Lin  njeus  is  not 
always  consistent.  He  has  no  hesitation  in  consi- 
dering the  tuber,  or  knob,  of  the  Potatoe,  as  a  true  root: 
yet  who  does  not  know,  that  this  tuber,  as  well  as  the 
bulbus,  in  the  Linnaean  sense  of  the  word,  encloses  and 
protects  the  tender  embryo?  Linnaeus  informs  us,  that 
in  the  hollow  stem  of  the  Osmunda,  near  its  root,  is  con- 
tained the  embryo-plant,  that  is  to  be  born  the  following 
year.  Why  does  he  not  consider  this  "  caulis  cavus," 
or  hollow  stem,  as  a  true  hybernaculum,  or  bulb,  or  bud? 


*  For  representations  of  different  species*f  roots,  see,  in  this  work,  particularly 
Plates  II.  and  III.  and  also  some  of  the  individual  plates  illustrative  of  the  sexual 
system  of  Linnxus. 

t  Yet  I  believe  it  would  have  been  difficult  for  Linnaeus  to  have  demonstrated 
the  pre-existence  of  the  embryo,  in  all  the  different  species  of  bulb.  Who  has  seen 
the  embryo,  in  some  of  the  articulated  bulbs  ?  It  must  exist  there,  it  will  be  answer- 
ed, because  the  bulb  shoots  into  a  new  plant,  in  every  essential  respect  similar  to 
the  parent  plant.  Then  the  leaf  of  the  Aloe,  the  leaf  of  the  Orange,  and  the  leaves 
cf  many  other  plants,  are  bulbs,  or  buds-,  for  they,  when  committed  to  the  ground, 
produc#new  plants,  similar  to  their  parents. 
t 


12  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

Besides,  the  observations  of  the  Marquis  de  S.  Simon, 
whom  I  have  already  mentioned,  compel  us  to  entertain 
doubts  concerning"  some  of  the  Linnsean  notions  respect- 
ing the  bulb.  The  Swedish  naturalist  says,  the  radicles, 
or  small  fibres,  which  are  attached  to  the  bulb,  are  the 
only  part  entitled  to  the  name  of  a  true  root.  But  it  ap- 
pears highly  probable,  that  all  these  fibres  do  not  act  the 
part  of  absorbing  organs,  or  vessels :  some  of  them,  at 
least,  appear  to  be  exhalents.  Certain  it  is,  that  the  ra- 
dicles are  not  necessary  to  the  nutriment  of  the  plant, 
through  the  medium  of  the  bulb.  Some  of  the  most 
vigorous  blossoms  are  often  protruded  from  bulbs,  the 
radicles  of  which  hav(e  fallen  ofF,  almost  immediately  after 
their  appearance. 

In  the  study  of  plants,  it  is  a  matter  of  essential  im- 
portance to  attend  to  the  structure  of  the  bulb,  or  bul- 
bous root.  These  bulbs  frequently  afford  excellent 
marks  for  distinguishing  one  species  of  plant  from  ano- 
ther of  the  same  genus.  Thus,  the  different  species  of 
the  genus  Scilla,  or  Squill,  can  hardly  be  distinguished 
from  each  other,  except  by  the  circumstance  of  their 
bulbs,  which  are  coated,  solid  (at  least,  deemed  solid), 
and  scaly. 

Here,  under  the  head  of  the  bulbous  roots,  it  might 
not  be  improper  to  take  notice  of  the  Bulbus  cauli?iusy 
or  stem-bulb,  and  other  similar  productions,  which, 
both  in  their  structure  and  office,  are  very  nearly  allied 
to  the  bulb  of  which  I  have  already  treated.  I  shall, 
however,  reserve  the  consideration  of  these  stem-bulbs, 
&.c.  until  I  come  to  speak  of  the  Hybernaculum,  or  win- 
ter-quarters of  the  plant. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  13 

Plants  that  are  furnished  with  bulbs,  or  bulbous 
roots,  have  received  the  name  of  Bulbosce,  or  Bulbous 
plants.  These  bulbosse  constitute  one  of  the  classes  in 
the  method  of  Andreas  Csesalpinus.  Bulbosee  and  Bul- 
bosis  affines  are  the  names  of  the  twenty-fourth  and 
twenty-fifth  classes  in  the  Methodus  PropriaofMr.  Ray, 
the  immortal  English  naturalist.  Linnaeus's  ninth  and 
tenth  orders,  Spatbacea,  and  Coronarite,  in  his  attempt 
towards  a  natural  method,  embrace  many  of  the  finest 
vegetables  that  are  furnished  with  bulbous  roots.  Such, 
among  others,  are  the  Hasmanthus,  Amaryllis,  Pancra- 
tium, Narcissus,  Galanthus,  Crinum,  Colchicum,  Alli- 
um, Polianthes,  Ornithogalum,  Scilla,  Hyacinthus, 
Hypoxis,  Lilium,  and  Tulipa. 


5.  ii. 


Of  Roots,  in  respect  to  their  direction,  or 
manner  of  growth. 

Roots,  with  respect  to  their  direction,  or  manner  of 
growth,  are  very  different  from  one  anotker. 

1.  Some  roots  are  perpendicular,  or  run  directly 
downwards  into  the  earth.  These  constitute  what  Lin- 
naeus calls  the  Radix  perpendicularis ,  or  perpendicu- 
lar root.  This  term  is  generally  applied  to  a  particular 
kind  of  root,  which  descends,  in  one  straight  fibre,  that 
gradually  tapers  from  above  downwards,  and  whose 
greatest  diameter  does  not  exceed  that  of  the  base  of  the 
stem.  The  Carrot,  Parsnip,  and  other  spindle-shaped 
roots,  as  we  have  called  them,  are  also  examples  of  the 
perpendicular  root.     Some  of  the  perpendicular  roots 


14  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

strike  but  a  little  way  into  the  ground,  such  as  the  Da- 
tura, or  Thorn-apple:  some  pierce  deep,  as  the  Horse- 
radish^ the  Phytolacca,  or  Poke,  and  others. 

2.  The  Radix  horizontalis,  or  horizontal  root,  ex- 
tends itself  under  the  surface  of  the  ground,  nearly  in  a  ho- 
rizontal direction.  The  Iris,the  May-apple *,the  Hop, the 
Cinquefoil,  and  many  other  plants  furnish  us  with  ex- 
amples of  this  direction  of  the  root.  Some  of  the  horizon- 
tal roots  run  very  near  to  the  surface  of  the  earth ;  such  as 
the  Woodbine  and  the  wild  Anemone :  others  run  lower 
down,  as  the  Triticum  repens,  or  Couch-grass.  The 
horizontal  root  is  sometimes  called  level  or  transverse- 
root.  According  to  the  greater  or  less  severity  of  the 
climate,  the  perpendicular  and  horizontal  roots  (of  the 
same  species)  will  often  be  found  to  pierce  the  earth 
more  or  less  remote  from  its  surface.  The  root,  as  well 
as  every  other  part  of  the  plant,  accommodates  itself,  in 
some  measure,  to  the  climate  in  which  it  grows. 

3.  The  Radix  repens,  or  creeping  root,  is,  by 
Linnaeus,  distinguished  from  the  horizontal  root,  to 
which,  however,  it  is  nearly  allied.  While  the  latter 
species  of  root  is  extended  under  the  earth,  in  a  trans- 
verse direction,  the  former  is  observed  to  creep  hori- 
zontally, in  every  direction,  putting  forth  fibres,  as  it 
proceeds.  The  Mentha,  or  Mint,  furnishes  us  with  an  ■ 
example  of  this  kind  of  root. 

4.  The  roots  of  some  plants  have  a  two-fold  direc- 
tion. Thus  in  the  Primula,  or  Primrose,  the  stock,  or 
main  root,  runs  level,  whilst  the  radicles,  or  fibres, 
strike  perpendicularly  downwards  into  the  earfh. 

*  Podophyllum  peltatum. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  15 

5.  Some  roots  are  entire,  that  is  not  branched.  These 
constitute  what  Linnajus  denominates  the  Radix  sim- 
plex, or  simple  root.  Other  roots  are  subdivided,  or 
branched.  These  are  the  Radix  ramosa,  or  branched 
root.  The  Radix  ramosissima  is  a  root  which  is  greatly 
subdivided,  or  branches  to  a  considerable  degree. — The 
Podophyllum  diphyllum,  which  I  have  called  Jeffersonia 
binata,  furnishes  a  good  example  of  this  last  kind  of 
root. 


MIL      n 

Of  Roots,  in  respect  to  their  duration. 

The  period  of  the  duration  or  existence  of  roots  is 
very  different.  Some  roots  subsist  for  only  one  year; 
some  for  two,  and  some  for  many  years.  Those  which 
subsist  during  only  one  year  are  denominated  annuals : 
those  which  subsist  for  two  years  are  called  biennials, 
and  those  which  subsist  for  many  years  are  called  peren- 
nials. It  is  only  among  the  herbaceous*  vegetables,  that 
we  have  examples  of  annual  and  biennial  roots.  But  the 
roots  of  both  herbs  and  trees  are  perennials. 

1.  Annual  pfents,  as  I  have  already  observed, exist 
only  one  year.  Afthe  completion  of  about  this  period, 
the  root  and  the  stem  perish,  and  the  individual  dies,  to 
rise  no  more  from  a  root.  It  is  perpetuated,  however,  by 
its  seed. — Gleditschhas  compared  the  annual  plants  with 

*  Herbaceous  vegetables  are  those  which  have  succulent  stalks,  or  stems,  thar 
perish  down  to  the  root  every  year. 


16  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

insects.  The  annual  plant,  as  well  as  the  insect,  having 
undergone  various  metamorphoses,  arrives  at  maturity, 
performs  the  office  of  generation ;  after  which  the  male 
quickly  perishes,  the  female  surviving  some  time  longer, 
to  nourish  and  deposit  the  seed. 

2.  Biennial  plants  renew  their  stems  only  twice, 
after  which  the  root  perishes,  the  plant  being  perpetua- 
ted by  its  seed.  Biennial  are  much  less  numerous  than 
annual  or  perennial  vegetables. 

3.  Perennial  plants  are  such  as  subsist,  by  means 
of  their  roots  or  stems,  for  more  than  two  years. 
Some  of  the  vegetables  of  this  class  preserve  both  their 
roots  and  stems  for  many  years ;  such  are  the  numerous 
species  of  trees,  the  roots  of  which  have  been  denomina- 
ted Radices  fruticosa*.  The  stems  of  other  perennial 
plants  perish  to  the  ground,  the  stem  being  annually  re- 
paired out  of  the  root. 

Climate  and  cultivation  exert  a  manifest  effect 
upon  the  term  of  duration  of  the  roots  of  vegetables. 
When  transplanted  into  cold  climates,  many  of  the  pe- 
rennial plants  become  annuals,  and  the  species  is  perpe- 
tuated by  seed.  Thus,  in  its  native  warm  climate,  the 
Ricinus  communis,  or  Castor-oil  plant,  has  a  shrubby 
stem,  and  is  a  perennial;  but  in  cold  climates,  both  the 
root  and  the  stem  perish,  and  the  vegetable  is  continued 
by  its  seed* 

The  effects  of  culture,  in  influencing  the  term  of  ex- 
istence of  the  roots  of  vegetables,  are  much  less  under- 

*  Radices  fruticosx ,  or  shrubby  roots,  from  Frittex,  a  shrub- 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  17 

stood,  than  the  effects  of  climate.  It  is  certain,  however, 
that,  in  many  instances,  culture  does  prolong  the  life  of 
annual  plants. 


$.    IV. 

Miscellaneous  circumstances  relative  to  the 
natural  history  of  roots. 

I.  The  roots  of  the  greater  number  of  vegetables  are 
hid  below  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  from  its  bosom 
they  derive  a  large  part  of  their  nourishment  and  growth. 
But  there  are  many  vegetables  which  are  not  thus  neces- 
sarily attached  to  the  earth.  The  Misletoe,  the  Vanilla, 
the  Dodder,  the  Hypocistis,  and  many  others,  do  not 
emit  their  radicles  into  the  soil,  but  migrate,  if  I  may  use 
the  phrase,  in  search  of  nourishment  elsewhere.  They 
attach  themselves  to  other  plants,  which  they  use  as 
fulcres  or  props,  and  from  which,  it  is  highly  probable, 
they  derive  some  of  their  nourishment.  Such  plants  are 
denominated  Plantce  Parasitica,  or  Parasitic  Plants. 
This  term  was,  long  ago,  employed  by  the  celebrated 
Malpighi.  Linnasus  makes  much  use  of  it,  and  he  has 
not  forgotten,  in  his  employment  of  it,  to  glance  severe- 
ly at  the  close-clasping  habits  of  some  botanists,  his  con- 
temporaries, and  ro|)iring  rivals  after  glory. 

The  Misletoe,  the  Vanilla,  the  Tillandsia,  and  many 
others,  attach  themselves  to  the  branches  of  trees.  The 
Asarum  Hypocistis  shows  a  preference  to  the  roots  of 
plants,  particularly,  it  is  said,  the  Cistus,  or  Rock-rose; 
whilst  different  species  of  Cuscuta,  or  Dodder,  cling  to 
the  stems  of  a  great  variety  of  plants. 

D 


18  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

Th  e  parasitic  plants  attach  themselves  to  other 
plants  in  various  different  ways.  The  seed  of  the  Dod- 
der having  been  deposited  in  the  ground,  there  makes 
its  first  effort  towards  vegetation.  It  protrudes  a  stem, 
which  seizes  upon  the  first  plant  in  its  vicinity,  to  which 
it  closely  adheres.  It  is  imagined  that  it  derives  its  nou- 
rishment, by  means  of  certain  glandular  organs,  from 
the  supporting  plant.  It  is  observed,  however,  that  the 
lower  part  of  the  stem  of  the  parasitic  plant  soon  dries 
upT  the  root  perishes,  and  the  parasite  lives  upon  its 
fulcre,  or  support.  Perhaps,  however,  it  is  not  certain, 
that  it  derives  any  essential  part  of  its  nourishment  from 
the  juices  of  the  plant  to  which  it  attaches  itself.  It  is 
highly  probable,  that,  in  many  instances,  parasitic  plants 
injure  their  supporters,  more  by  emitting  from  their 
bodies  some  noxious  fluid,  than  by  absorbing  whole- 
some fluids  from  the  supports*. 

The  Misletoe,  the  VanUla,  the  Tillandsia,  and  the 
Hypocistis  are  never  found  upon  the  earth:  they  appear 
to  have  been  originally  produced  upon  the  vegetables 
by  which  they  are  supported.  The  two  first  mentioned 
parasitic  plants  extend  their  roots  under  the  bark,  and 
even  pierce  the  body  of  the  wood.  The  Tillandsia  usne- 
oides,  which  is  well  known  in  North- America  by  the 
names  of  Long-Moss,  and  Spanish-Beard,  is  much  more 
loosely  attached  to  the  trees  of  the  forest.  This  parasite 
is  so  abundant  in  the  southern  parts  of  the  United- States, 
and  in  New- Spain,  that  it  even  communicates  a  melan- 
choly darkness  to  extensive  woods. 


*  The  Cuscuta  Americana,  or  American  Dodder,  grows  very  abundantly  in 
Pennsylvania,  and  other  parts  of  the  United-States.  It  clings  to  a  great  number 
of  species  of  plants,  and  I  am  not  certain,  that  it  is  found  more  frequently  upon 
one  species  than  upon  another.  This  plant  is  known  by  two  very  different  names, 
viz.  Love-vine,  and  Devils-gutts. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  19 

2.  The  roots  of  many  mosses  attach  themselves  to  the 
firm  barks  of  trees,  whilst  the  lichens  cling  to  the  hard- 
est stones.  Some  species  seem  especially  attached  to 
stones  of  a  calcareous  nature;  whilst  others  form  a 
beautiful  plating,  as  it  were,  upon  the  surface  of  whins, 
sand-stones,  and  never-dying  granites.  It  has  not  yet 
been  determined,  with  absolute  certainty,  from  whence 
these  latter  mentioned  vegetables  derive  their  nutriment. 
It  cannot  be  from  the  stony  substances  to  which  they 
are  attached.  It  is  probable,  that  they  are  nourished 
entirely  by  the  atmosphere,  and  by  water  and  other  ex- 
traneous bodies  which  the  atmosphere  contains. 

3.  Some  plants  swim  upon  the  water,  and  even  per- 
form pretty  extensive  migrations.  Different  species  of 
Lemna*,  or  Duck-meat,  swim  upon  the  surface  of  the 
standing  waters  of  Europe  and  North-America,  and 
when  not  disturbed  will  cover  the  whole  surface.  Such 
plants  cannot,  with  propriety,  be  said  to  be  fixed  to  a 
certain  spot.  They  are,  indeed,  furnished  with  radicles, 
or  roots,  but  these  hang  loose  in  the  water,  from  which, 
it  is  probable,  they  derive  their  principal  nourishment. 
But  the  Fuci,  or  Sea- wreck,  an  extensive  tribe  of  plants, 
perform  migrations  of  hundreds  of  miles  upon  the  ocean, 
where  the  eye  of  the  navigator  is  often  enlivened  with 
extensive  fields,  which  are  principally  composed  of  these 
vegetables. 

4.  Of  the  many  thousand  species  of  plants  that  are 
now  known  to  the  botanists,  by  far  the  greater  number 
are,  unquestionably,  furnished  with  roots.  Some  plants, 
however,  are  said  to  be  wholly  destitute  of  roots.  Such  are 
the  different  species  of  the  genus  Tremella,  which  have 

*  Lemna  gibba,  L.  minor,  L.trisulca,  and  L.polyrbiza. 


20  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

so  many  of  the  habitudes  of  animals,  that,  by  certain 
writers,  they  have  been  considered  as  belonging  more 
properly  to  the  animal  than  to  the  vegetable  kingdom. 

5.  According  to  Linnaeus,  the  root  is  made  up  of 
Medulla,  or  Pith;  Lignum,  or  Wood;  Liber,  or  Inner 
Bark;  and  Cortex,  or  Outer  Bark.  These  several  parts 
will  be  more  particularly  mentioned,  when  I  treat  of  the 
anatomy  of  vegetables*. 

6.  Linnjeus,  ever  fond  of  analogies,  compares  the 
roots  of  plants  to  the  absorbing  lacteal  vessels  in  animals. 
The  earth  he  calls  the  stomach  of  plantsf.  The  propriety 
of  these  terms  will  be  attended  to  in  the  section  on  vege- 
table Digestion,  in  Part  II.  Meanwhile,  the  student 
ought  not  to  be  misled  by  the  specious  language  of  the 
illustrious  Swede. 


Section   II. 
OF  THE  HERB. 

The  Herb  a,  or  Herb,  is  the  second  general  part  of 
the  plant  which  I  have  mentioned.  By  Linnaeus,  it  is 
denned  to  be  thatfpart  of  the  vegetable,  which  arises 
from  the  root,  is  terminated  by  the  Fructification,  and 
comprehends  the  Trunk,  the  Leaves,  the  Fulcres,  and 
the  Hybernacle. 

»  See  Part  II. 

f  "  Pl&ntarum  Ventrical  us  est  Terra,  Vasa  Chylifera  Radix"  Philo- 
soj)hia  Botanica,  &c.  p.  93. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  21 


*I. 


The  Truncus,  or  Trunk,  is  the  body,  or  main  stem 
of  the  vegetable,  whether  it  be  a  tree,  a  shrub,  or  an 
herbaceous  plant.  It  supports  the  leaves  and  the  fruc- 
tification. Linnaeus  enumerates  six  species  of  trunk: 
these  are,  1.  the  Caulis.  2.  the  Culmus.  3.  the  Scapus. 

4.  the  Pedunciilns.  5.  the  Petiolus,  and  6.  the  Frons. 

■ 

1.  The  Caulis*,  stem,  or  stalk,  is  the  body  of  an 
herb  or  tree,  supporting  branches,  leaves,  and  fructifi- 
cation. "  To  this  description,  says  Dr.  Milne,  may  be 
"  added  another  circumstance,  that  caulis  is  an  univer- 
"  sal  trunk;  that  is,  proceeds  immediately  from  the 
"  root,  whilst  the  foot-stalks  of  the  flower  and  leaf, 
44  which  Linnaeus  likewise  denominates  trunks,  are 
44  partial;  that  is,  proceed  from  an  universal  trunk,  or 
44  its  branches."  The  caulis  is  the  most  common 
species  of  trunk,  strictly  so  called. 

The  stems  or  trunks  of  the  grasses,  the  palms,  the 
ferns,  and  the  fungous  plants,  are  distinguished  by  par- 
ticular appellations,  which  will  be  noticed  in  their  pro- 
per places. 

I  have  said,  that  the  caulis  is  the  stem  or  trunk  of 
a  vegetable,  whether  herb  or  tree.  It  is  to  be  observed, 
however,  that  formerly  the  term  caulis  was  applied  to 
herbs  only.  The  term  truncus,  which  was  employed  to 
denote  the  stem,  or  trunk,  or  bole  of  a  tree,  is  now  em- 


*  Caulis,  from  the  Greek  xxvXag.  Dr.  Martyn  observes,  that  the  "  English 
"  Kale,  and  Cole  (in  Colewort  aud  Coleseed),  come  from  caulis,  as  well  as 
"  Cauliflower  vulgarly  Collyflower :  but  immediately  from  the  Low-Dutch  Kool." 


22  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

ployed  as  a  generic  name,  of  which  the  terms  caulis, 
culmus,  &c.  are  species. 

The  caulis,  or  stem,  is  either  simple  or  compound. 

"  Simple  stems  are  such  as  do  not  divide,  but 
"  proceed  in  a  continued  series  towards  their  summits. 
14  Compound  stems  are  subdivided  into  ramuli,  or  small 
"  branches,  and  diminish  as  they  ascend,  so  as  frequently 
t;  to  lose  the  appearance  of  a  stem  altogether." 

I.  Linnjeus  enumerates  the  following  species  or  va- 
rieties of  the  caulis  simplex,  or  simple  stem:  viz.  1.  cau- 
lis nudus,  a  naked  stem,  or  a  stem  devoid  of  leaves  and 
hair.  2.  caulis  foliatus,  a  leafy  stem,  or  stem  covered 
with  leaves.  3.  caulis  flex  uosus,  a.  fluxuose  stem,  or  stem 
which  takes  a  different  direction  at  every  joint.  4.  caulis 
volubilis,  a  twining  stem,  or  stem  which  ascends,  in  a 
spiral  direction,  round  the  branch  or  stem  of  some  other 
plant,  or  round  some  prop.  5.  caulis  reclinatus,  a  recli- 
ning stem,  bending  in  an  arch  towards  the  earth.  6.  cau- 
lis procumbens,  a  procumbent  stem,  lying  along  the 
ground,  but  not  putting  forth  roots.  7.  caulis  repens,  a 
creeping  stem,  or  stem  running  along  the  ground,  and 
striking  root  at  certain  distances.  8.  caulis  sarmen- 
tosus,  or  sarmentose  6tem;a  slender  stem,  almost  naked, 
or  having  only  leaves  in  bunches,  at  the  joints  or  knots, 
where  it  strikes  root.  9.  caulis  parasiticus,  or  parasiti- 
cal stem ;  a  stem  which  does  not  grow  immediately  from 
the  ground,  but  depends  for  its  support  upon  sor^e  other 
vegetable.  10.  caulis  teres,  a  columnar  stem,  or  stem 
without  angles.  11.  caulis  anceps,  or  ancipital  stem;  a 
two-edged  stem,  compressed  and  forming  two  oppo- 
site angles.  12.  caulis  triquetcr,  or  three-sided  stem, 
having   three   plane    or  flat  sides.    13.    caulis    trian- 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  23 

gularis,  or  triangular  stem,  with  three  angles.  14.  c an- 
ils trigonus,  or  three-cornered  stem,  having  also  three 
angles,  with  the  sides  concave  or  convex.  15.  caulis 
sulcatus,  or  furrowed,  grooved,  or  fluted  stem;  a  stem 
marked,  its  whole  length,  with  grooves,  or  channels. 
16.  caulis  striatus,  a  striated  or  streaked  stem;  a  stem 
marked,  its  whole  length,  with  superficial  or  slight 
grooves,  or  channels.  17.  caulis  glaber,  a  smooth  stem. 
18.  caulis  scaber,  a  scabrous  or  rugged  stem,  some- 
thing like  shagreen.  19.  caulis  mllosus,  a  villose  stem; 
a  stem  covered  with  down  or  soft  hairs:  and  20.  caulis 
hispidus,  a  hispid  stem,  covered  with  bristley-like 
arms,  or  minute  prickles. 

2.  Of  simple  branching  stems,  Linnaeus  enume- 
rates the  following  kinds,  viz.  1.  caulis  adscendens, 
or  ascending  stem;  a  stem  whose  branches  grow,  at 
first,  in  a  horizontal  direction,  and  rfhen  gradually 
curve  upwards.  2.  caulis  diffusus,  or  diffused  stem; 
a  stem  furnished  with  spreading  branches.  3.  cau- 
lis distichus* ,  a  distich,  or  two-ranked  stem;  a  stem 
with  the  branches  horizontal,  and  produced  in  two 
rows:  or,  in  other  words,  it  is  a  stem  whose  branches 
proceed  from  only  two  sides  of  the  stem.  4.  cau- 
lis brachiatus\,  or  bracheate  stem;  a  stem  having 
branches,  stretched  out  like  arms,  in  pairs,  and  all  nearly 
horizontal,  each  pair  being  at  right  angles  with  the  next. 
5.  caulis  ramosissimus,  a  stem  very  much  branched: 
the  branches  disposed  without  any  regular  order.  6. 
caulis  fulcratus%,  or  fulcrated  stem.     This  species  of 

*  Distkhus,  from  hi  twice,  and  jf^oj,  a  rank,  or  row 
t  Brachiatus,  from  Brachium,  the  arm. 
}  Fulcratus,  from  Fulcrum,  a  prop. 


24  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

stem  is  supported  by  the  branches,  which  descend  to  the 
root;  as  in  the  Fig-tree,  and  the  Rhizophora,or  Sea-man- 
grove. 7.  caulis  prolifer,  a  proliferous  stem,  that  puts 
forth  branches  only  from  the  centre  of  the  summit :  as 
in  the  Pine,  Fir,  Cedar,  &c.  8.  caulis  simplicissimus , 
the  most  simple  stem,  having  Very  few  branches,  and 
proceeding  in  a  straight  line  to  the  top,  as  in  the  La- 
thraea  Squamaria. 

3.  Of  the  caulis  compositus,  or  compound  stem,  the 
following  species  are  mentioned  by  Linnaeus,  viz.  1. 
caulis  dichotomus* ,  a  dichotomus  stem,  or  stem  which 
continually  and  regularly  divides  by  pairs,  from  the  top 
to  the  bottom.  This  is  instanced  in  the  Viscum,  or 
Misletoe,  the  Valeriana  Locusta,  called  Corn-sallad,the 
Chironia  angularis,  or  American  Centaury,  and  others. 
2.  caulis  subdhisuSy  a  stem  divided  into  branches  irre- 
gularly, or  without  order.  3.  caulis  articulatusy  a  joint- 
ed stem,  having  knots  or  joints  situated  at  certain  dis- 
tances. 

II.  The  Culmus,  which  may  very  properly  be  trans- 
lated, Culm,  but  which  is  also  called  the  Straw  or 
Haulmf,  is  defined,  by  Linnaeus,  to  be  the  proper  trunk 
of  the  gramina,  or  grasses,  elevating  the  leaves,  the 
flower,  and  the  fruit.     "  The  word  Straw  being  com- 

*  Dichotomus  from  S"<5,  twice,  and  Ttf**a,  to  cut :  or  from  $ikx  and  rtpcvw, 
to  divide  by  pairs. 

n 

t  Haum,  or  Haume,  is  the  older  English  spelling  adopted  from  the  Saxon 
Thus,  old  Tusser  uses  the  word  : 

"  In  champion  countrie  a  pleasure  they  take 
"  To  mow  up  their  Haume  for  to  brew  and  to  bake  : 
«'  The  haume  is  the  straw  of  the  wheat  or  thene, 
«'  Which  once  being  reaped,  they  mow  by  and  by." 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  25 

<l  monly  appropriated  to  the  dry  stalk  of  corn,  I  prefer 
*'  using  the  Latin  culm*." 

This  species  of  stem  is  generally  tubular,  or  hollow, 
and  has  very  frequently  knots  or  joints  distributed,  at 
certain  intervals,  through  its  whole  length.  Most  of  the 
grasses  have  a  round  and  cylindrical  stem,  as  in  the 
Wheat,  the  Rye,  the  Oat,  and  many  others.  Some  spe- 
cies of  grasses,  however,  have  a  triangular  culm.  We 
have  instances  of  this  in  several  species  of  Schoenus, 
Scirpus,  Cyperus,  &c. 

I  have  said,  that  the  culm  is  very  frequently  inter- 
rupted by  knots  or  joints;  as  in  the  Wheat,  Indian-corn, 
or  Maize, &c.  This  is  the  culmus  articulatus,  or  jointed 
culm.  But  the  culms  of  some  species  of  grasses  are  en- 
tirely destitute  of  such  knots.  These  are  the  culmus 
enodis,  or  knotless  culm.  The  interval,  or  space,  con- 
tained between  every  two  joints  of  a  jointed  culm  is 
called  Internodium,  and  Articulus  culmi.  To  avoid  all 
ambiguity,  it  may  not  be  improper  to  anglicize  the  Latin 
word  internodium,  by  using  the  word  Internode,  as  a 
learned  veteranf  in  the  science  of  Botany  has  done. 

In  the  greater  number  of  grasses,  the  culm  is  gar- 
nished with  leaves,  as  in  the  Wheat,  Rye,  Indian-corn, 
&c.  In  some  species,  the  culm  is  entirely  naked,  that  is 
destitute  of  leaves.  This  is  the  case  in  certain  species 
of  Cyperus,  or  Cypress- grass.  The  culms  of  the  great- 
er number  of  the  grasses  of  the  temperate  countries  are 
entire,'  that  is  not  branched.  In  the  Indies,  however, 
many  of  the  grasses  have  branched  culms.  The  culm 
sometimes  consists  of  a  number  of  scales,  which  lie  over 

*   Professor  Martyn.  \  Professor  Martvn. 


26  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

each  other,  in  the  manner  of  tiles  upon  a  house.  The 
culm  of  an  Asiatic  species  of  grass*  is  said  to  at- 
tain to  the  height  of  sixty  or  an  hundred  feet.  Even 
within  the  limits  of  the  United- States,  one  speciesf  of 
Arundo,  or  Reed,  whose  stem  is  a  culm,  grows  to  the 
height  of  thirty  feet. 

Plants  that  are  furnished  with  the  particular  spe- 
cies of  stem  which  I  have  been  speaking  of,  are  known 
among  botanists  by  the  name  of  Plant*?  Cnlmiferes,  or 
Ci-lmiferous  plants.  By  Linnaeus  they  are  denominated 
Gramina,  or  Grasses.  Mr.  Jussieu  calls  them  Gra- 
mine  a.  Of  this  very  extensive  and  interesting  family  of 
vegetables,  I  shall  take  more  particular  notice,  in  a  future 
part  of  this  work. 

3.  The  ScapusJ,  or  Scape,  as  Dr.  Martyn  translates 
the  word,  is  a  species  of  stem,  or  trunk,  which  supports 
the  fructification,  but  not  the  leaves.  The  scape,  like 
the  caulis,  is  an  universal  stem,  in  which  respect  it  dif- 
fers from  the  pedunculus,  or  peduncle.  The  scape  pro- 
ceeds immediately  from  the  root,  whereas  the  peduncle 
proceeds  always  from  the  stem,  or  branches  of  the  stem. 
The  scape  also  differs  from  the  caulis  apbyllusy  or 
leafless  stem,  because  although  the  scape  is  naked,  that 
is  without  leaves,  it  has,  nevertheless,  always  radical  or 
bottom  leaves :  but  the  naked  stem  is  entirely  destitute 
of  leaves. — Dr.  Milne  observes,  that  in  the  Species 
Plantarum  of  Linnaeus,  "  the  term  Scapus  is  generally 
"  preceded  by  the  superfluous  word  naked \  an  addition 

*  Panicum  arborescens,  a  native  of  Ceylon. 

t  Arundo  gigantea  of  Walter. 

\  Scapus,  originally  from  <rwif\ta ,  to  lean  upon  ;  but  more  immediately  from 
the  classical  Latin  word,  Scapus,  the  uprjght  stem  of  an  herb ;  the  shaft  of  a 
column,  8cc. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  27 

M  which  is  apt  to  mislead  the  unexperienced  botanist,  as 
"  seeming  to  imply,  that  nakedness  is  not  an  essential 
"  part  in  the  description  of  this  species  of  stalk." 

After  denning  the  scape  to  be  a  species  of  stem 
which  supports  the  fructification,  but  not  the  leaves,  it 
does,  certainly,  seem  wholly  unnecessary  to  inform  us, 
that  the  scape  is  leafless.  It  must,  however,  be  observ- 
ed, that  in  some  plants*,  what  is  called  the  scape  is  not 
wholly  leafless. 

The  following,  among  many  other  plants,  furnish  us 
with  examples  of  the  scape:  viz.  the  Narcissus,  the  Py- 
rola,  or  Winter- green,  the  Convallaria  majalis,or  Lily  of 
the  valley,  the  Hyacinthus,  or  Hyacinth,  the  Dionaea 
Muscipula,the  Sarracenia  purpurea,  the  Hypoxis  erecta, 
and  the  Sagittaria  sagittifoliaf. 

4.  The  Frons,  or  Frond,  is  the  sixth  species  of  trunk 
enumerated  by  Linnaeus.  He  defines  it  to  be  a  kind  of 
trunk  or  stem,  which  has  the  branch  united  with  the  leaf, 
and  frequently  with  the  fructification.  In  other  words,  it 
is  a  stem,  "  in  which  the  leaves  are  confounded  with  the 
"  stem  and  branches,  and  frequently  with  the  flower  and 
fruit."  Linnaeus  restricts  this  species  of  stem  to  the 
Ferns  and  Palms,  two  vast  families  of  plants,  of  which  I 
am  afterwards  to  make  more  particular  mention. 

Some  respectable  writers  do  not  agree  with  Linnzeus 
in  considering  the  frond,  as  a  species  of  trunk.  It  does 
not,  indeed,  appear  in  what  very  essential  circumstance 
the  frond  does  differ  from  a  true  compound  leaf.  Its  two 
sides  are  very  distinct  from  each  other,  in  which  respect, 

*  Tussilago  alpina,  &c. 

t  See,  in  this  work,  the  figures  of  the  four  last  mentioned  plants. 


28  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

it  agrees  with  almost  all  known  leaves:  but  differs  from 
the  other  species  of  real  stems,  the  two  sides  of  which 
are  no  way  different  from  each  other.  It  must  be  observ- 
ed, however,  that  the  upper  and  under  surfaces  of  the 
petiolus,  and  pedunculus,  which  the  Swedish  natural- 
ist considers  as  species  of  trunk,  are  often,  like  the  upper 
and  under  surfaces  of  the  leaves,  and  frons,  distinct,  in 
their  appearance,  from  one  another.  I  think,  upon  the 
whole,  that  we  should  do  no  injury  to  the  science  of 
plants,  were  we  to  exclude,  entirely,  the  frond  from  the 
list  of  stems. 

5.  The  Stipes*,  or  Stipe,  is  the  seventh  and  last 
species  of  trunk  enumerated  by  Linnaeus.  He  defines  it 
to  be  the  base  of  the  frond,  last  mentioned,  and  he  re- 
stricts it  to  the  Ferns,  Palms,  and  Fungous  plants.  The 
stem  of  the  last-mentioned  family  of  plants  (compre- 
hending the  numerous  species  of  mushrooms,  &c.)  is 
called  by  Dr.  Withering,  the  Pillar. 

The  term  stipes,  or  stipe,  is  also  put  by  Linnaeus, 
for  the  thread,  or  slender  stem,  or  foot-stalk,  which,  in 
many  of  the  compound  flowers,  belonging  to  the  class  of 
Syngenesia,  elevates  the  feather-like  or  hairy  crown 
(called  Pappus),  with  which  the  seeds  are  furnished, 
and  connects  it  with  the  seed.  This  appearance  is  suffi- 
ciently conspicuous  in  the  common  Lettuce,  the  Dande- 
lion (Leontodon  Taraxacum),  the  Colts-foot  (Tussi- 
lago),  and  many  other  plants. 

Of  the  Pedunculus  and  Petiolus  (known  among 
English  botanists  by  the  names  of  Peduncle  and  Peti- 
ole), I  shall  treat  particularly  under  the  head  of  Ful- 
cra, or  Fulcres. 

*  Stipes,  originally  from  $<■'*<>(,  a  stake. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  29 


|.  II. 


The  Folium,  or  Leaf,  is  the  next  part  of  the  herba, 
that  demands  our  attention. 

It  seems  hardly  necessary  to  attempt  a  definition  of 
leaves:  so  familiar  are  these  parts  to  the  senses  of  all 
mankind.  That  it  is  not  easy  to  succeed  in  our  attempt 
after  a  definition  of  these  parts,  I  infer  from  the  very 
lame  distinctions  which  have  been  given  by  celebrated 
writers.  Thus,  Linnaeus  defines  the  leaf  to  be  "  the 
organ  of  motion  in  a  vegetable  :"  "  Organum  motus 
plantas."  But  these  words  convey  no  manner  of  idea  of 
the  form  or  structure  of  the  leaf.  They  only  tell  us, 
what  the  Swedish  naturalist  deemed  to  be  the  true  use 
of  leaves  in  the  vegetable  economy.  Professor  Ludwig 
defines  leaves  to  be  fibrous  and  cellular  processes  of  the 
plant,  which  are  of  various  figures,  but  generally  extend- 
ed into  a  plain  membranaceeous,  or  skinny  substance*. 
Miller's  definition  of  the  leaf,  might  serve  as  a  definition 
of  almost  every  other  part  of  the  plant. 

Reserving  the  consideration  of  some  interesting 
particulars  in  the  history  of  leaves,  to  the  Second  Part 
of  this  work,  I  shall  now  proceed  to  treat  of  leaves,  un- 
der the  following  heads:  viz.  1.  of  leaves  in  regard  to 
their  nomenclature:  II.  of  the  anatomical  structure  of 
leaves:  III.  of  the  uses  of  leaves  in  the  vegetable  econo- 
my; and,  IV.  and  lastly  of  certain  miscellaneous  circum- 
stances, in  the  natural  history  of  leaves. 

*  Ludwig,  as  quoted  by  Milne. 


30  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 


A.  I.  Of  the  Nomenclature  of  Leaves. 

Leaves,  considered  in  respect  to  their  nomenclatu- 
ral  history,  may  be  treated  of  under  the  three  following 
heads,  viz.  1.  of  Simple  Leaves:  2.  of  Compound 
Leaves:  and,  3.  of  Leaves  according  to  their  Deter- 
mination. 

1.  The  Folium  Simplex,  or  Simple  Leaf,  is  that 
species  of  leaf,  which  consists  of  only  one,  undivided 
portion,  situated  upon  a  petiole,  or  foot-stalk.  In  other 
words,  the  simple  leaf  is  a  leaf  whose  petiole  is  termi- 
nated by  a  single  expansion,  the  divisions  of  which, 
however  deep  they  may  be,  do  not  reach  to  the  middle 
rib.  "  To  understand  this,  let  it  be  observed,  that  the 
44  middle  rib  of  every  leaf  is  the  principal  prolongation 
44  of  the  foot- stalk  ;  which,  to  form  the  membranaceous 
41  expansion,  called  the  leaf,  runs  out — into  a  number  of 
44  ramifications,  that  inosculating  and  crossing  each 
44  other  mutually,  form  the  cortical  net"  of  the  leaf. 
44  When  these  ramifications  of  the  foot- stalk  are  so  con- 
44  nected,  as  to  form  one  entire  expansion,  the  leaf  is 
44  said  to  be  simple;  but  when  the  middle  rib  becomes, 
44  in  fact,  a  foot-stalk,  and  many  different  expansions, 
44  instead  of  one,  proceed  from  the  common  foot-stalk, 
44  the  leaf  is  said  to  be  compound."  The  middle  rib 
of  a  leaf,  whether  it  be  simple,  or  compound,  is  deno- 
minated by  Linnaeus,  costa.  Of  this  more  particular 
mention  will  be  made,  hereafter. 

The  forms  of  the  simple  leaf  are  almost  innume- 
rable. I  shall  here  mention  the  greater  number  of  those 
which  are  noticed  by  Linnaeus,  in  his  Philosophia  Bo- 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  31 

tanica*.  They  are  the  following,  viz.  1.  folium  orblcu- 
latum,  an  orbicular,  or  circular  leaf.  2.  folium  subrotun- 
dum,  a  leaf  nearly  round.  3.  folium  ovatum,  an  ovate, 
or  egg-shaped  leaf.  4.  folium  ovale,  an  oval  leaf.  5.  fo- 
lium parabolicum,  a  parabolic  leaf.  6.  folium  spatula- 
tum,  a  spatulate,  or  spatula-shaped  leaf.  7.  folium  cu- 
neiforme,  a  cuneiform,  or  wedge-shaped  leaf.  8.  folium 
oblongum,  an  oblong  leaf.  9.  folium  lanceolatum,  a  lan- 
ceolate leaf.  10.  folium  lineare,  a  linear  leaf,  as  the 
leaves  of  the  grasses.  11.  folium  acerosum,  or  acerose 
leaf;  a  leaf  which  is  linear  and  permanent,  as  in  the  Pine, 
Yew,  and  many  other  evergreen  trees.  12.  folium  subu- 
latum,  a  subulate  leaf;  linear  at  the  bottom,  but  gradu- 
ally tapering  towards  the  end.  13.  folium  triangular  e, 
a  triangular  leaf.  14.  folium  quadr  angular  e,  a  quadran- 
gular leaf.  15.  folium  quinquangulare,  a  five-cornered 
leaf.  16.  folium  deltoides,  a  deltoid  leaf.  17. folium  rotun- 
dum,  around  leaf.  18.  folium  reniforme,  a  reniform  or 
kidney-shaped  leaf.  19.  folium  cordatum,  a  cordate  or 
heart-shaped  leaf.  20.  folium  lunulatum\  shaped  like  a 
crescent.  21.  folium  sagittatum,  a  sagittate  leaf;  a  leaf 
shaped  like  the  head  of  an  arrowf.  22.  folium  hastatum, 
a  hastate  leaf;  a  leaf  resembling  the  head  of  a  halbert. 
23.  folium  pandurceforme,  a  guitar- shaped  leaf;  as  in 
Convolvulus  panduratus,  called  Wild-Potatoe,  &c.  24. 
folium  fissum,  a  cleft-leaf;  a  leaf  divided  by  linear  sinuses, 
with  straight  margins.  (According  to  the  number  of 
these  divisions,  the  leaf  is  called,  bifid,  trifid,  quadrifid, 


*  It  is  far,  however,  from  being  my  intention  to  attempt  any  thing  like  ifull  de- 
finition or  description  of  each  kind  of  leaf.  For  the  most  satisfactory  explanation 
of  the  Linnxan  terms  of  leaves,  &c.  I  must  particularly  refer  the  reader  to  Pro- 
fessor Martyn's  work  (The  Language  of Botany,  c3*c),  which  I  sooften  mention  in 
the  course  of  these  Elements,  and  which  I  always  mention  with  pleasure. 

\  As  in  Sagittaria  sagittifolia,  of  which  see  the  figure  in  this  work. 


32  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

quinquefid,  multifid,  bifidum,  trifidum,  quadrijidum, 
quinquefidum,  multifidum,  &cj.  25.  folium  lobatum, 
a  lobate  or  lobed  leaf.  26.  folium  palmatum,  a  palmate 
or  hand-shaped  leaf.  27.  folium  pinnatifidum,  a  pinna- 
tifid  leaf.  28.  folium  lyratrum,  a  lyrate,  or  lyre-shaped 
leaf.  29.  folium  laciniatum,  a  laciniate,  or  jagged  leaf. 
30.  folium  sinuatum,  a  sinuate  leaf.  31.  folium  parti '- 
turn,  or  parted  leaf;  a  leaf  divided  almost  down  to  the 
base.  (According  to  the  number  of  the  divisions,  the 
parted  leaf  is  called  bipartite,  or  two -par  ted;  tripartite, 
or  three-parted,  &c.  &x.  bipartitum,  tripartitum,  qua- 
dripartitum,  quinquepartilum,  multipartitum ) .  32. 
folium  integrum,  an  entire  leaf.  33.  folium  truncatum, 
a  truncate  leaf;  ending  in  a  transverse  line,  so  that  it 
seems  as  if  the  tip  of  the  leaf  had  been  cut  off:  beauti- 
fully illustrated  in  the  Liriodendron  Tulipifera,  or  Tu- 
lip-tree, of  North- America.  34.  folium  pr  amor  sum,  a 
leaf  ending  very  obtusely,  with  unequal  notches*.  35. 
folium  retusum,  a  retuse  leaf;  ending  in  a  blunt  sinus. 
36.  folium  emarginatum,  a  leaf  notched  at  the  end.  37. 
folium  obtusum,  an  obtuse  or  blunt  leaf.  38.  folium  acu- 
tum,  an  acute  leaf,  ending  in  an  acute  angle.  39.  folium 
acuminatum, an  acuminate  or  sharp-pointed  leaf;  ending 
in  a  subulate  or  awl-shaped  point.  40.foliu?n  cirrhosum, 
a  cirrose  leaf;  terminating  in  a  tendril.  41.  folium  spi- 
nosum,  a  spiny  or  thorny  leaf.  42.  folium  dentatum,  a 
toothed  leaf.  43.  folium  serratum,  a  serrate  leaf, toothed 
like  a  saw.  44.  folium  crenatu?n,  a  crenate  leaf;  having 
the  edge  cut  with  angular  or  circular  incisures,  not  in- 
clining towards  either  extremity.  45.  folium  repandum, 
a  repand  leaf;  having  its  rim  terminated  by  angles,  with 

*  See  radix  prsmorsa,  p.  7  k  8-        # 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  33 

sinuses  between  them.  46.  folium  cartilagineum,  a 
cartilaginous  lecif.  47.  folium  ciliatum*,  a  ciliate  leaf; 
having  the  edge  guarded  by  parallel  bristles  longitudi- 
nally. 48.  folium  lacerum,  a  lacerated  leaf;  with  the 
edge  variously  cut,  as  if  it  were  torn.  49.  folium  ero- 
sum,  an  erose  or  gnawed  leaf;  as  if  gnawed  by  insects. 
SO.  folium  inttgerrimum,  absolutely  entire;  the  mar- 
gin or  edge  not  in  the  least  cut  or  notched.  51.  folium 
viscidum,  a  viscid  leaf;  covered  with  a  tenacious  juice. 
52.  folium  tomentosum,  atomentose,  downy  or  cottony 
leaf.  53.  folium  lanatum,  a  woolly  leaf;  covered  with 
a  substance  resembling  a  spider's  web.  54.  folium 
pilosum,  a  hairy  leaf;  having  the  surface  covered  with 
long,  and  distinct  hairs.  55.  folium  bispidum,  a  hispid 
leaf  (see  caulis  hispidus).  56.  folium  scabrum,  a  sca- 
brous or  rugged  leaf  (see  caulis  scaber).  57.  folium 
aculeatum,  a  prickly  leaf;  armed  with  prickles*.  58. 
folium  striatum,  a  striated  or  streaked  leaf.  59.  folium 
papillosum,  a  papillose  leaf;  having  the  surface  cover- 
ed with  fleshy  dots.  60.  folium  punctatum,  a  dotted 
leaf.    61.  folium  nitidum,  a.  glittering  or  glossy  leaf. 

62.  folium plicatum,  a  plaited  Leaf;    folded  like  a  fan. 

63.  folium  undulatnm,  a  waved  leaf;  wTith  the  surface 
rising  and  falling  in  waves,  or  obtusely.  64.  folium 
crispum,  a  curled  leaf.  65.  folium  rugosum,  a  wrink- 
led leaf.  66.  folium  concavum,  a  concave  leaf;  or  leaf 
with  the  edge  standing  above  the  disk.  67.  folium  ve- 
nosum,  a  veined  leaf;  a  leaf  whose  vessels  branch,  or 
variously  divide  over  the  surface.  (When  a  leaf  has  no 
perceptible  vessels,  it  is  called  folium  avenium,  a  vein- 
less  leaf).  68.  folium  nervosum,  a  nerved  leaf;  having 
vessels  quite  simple  and  unbranched,  extending  from 

From  Cilia,  the  eye-lashes. 


34  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

the  base  towards  the  apex,  or  tip.  69.  folium  colora- 
tion, a  coloured  leaf ;  of  any  other  colour  than  green. 
70.  folium  glabrum,  a  smooth  leaf.  71.  folium  teres, 
a  columnar  leaf;  a  leaf  without  angles.  72.  folium  tu- 
bulosum,  a  tubulous  or  hollow  leaf,  as  in  the  Onion; 
and  most  singularly  in  the  Sarracenia  purpurea*.  73. 
folium  carnosum,  a  fleshy  leaf:  full  of  pulp  within,  as 
in  Sedum,  and  many  other  succulent  leaves.  74.  fo- 
lium compressum,  a  compressed  or  flatted  leaf.  75. 
folium  planum,  a  plane  or  flat  leaf;  having  the  two 
surfaces  parallel.  76.  folium  gibbum,  a  gibbous  leaf; 
having  both  surfaces  convex,  owing  to  the  abundance  of 
pulp.  77.  folium  convexum,  a  convex  leaf;  with  the 
edge  more  contracted  than  the  disk.  78.  folium  depres- 
sum,  a  depressed  leaf;  hollow  in  the  middle,  having  the 
disk  more  depressed  than  the  sides.  79.  folium  canali- 
culatum,  a  channelled  leaf;  hollowed  above  with  a  deep 
longitudinal  groove,  convex  underneath.  80.  folium 
ensiforme,  a  sword-shaped  leaf;  tapering  from  the  base 
towards  the  point.  81.  folium  acinaciforme ,  an  acina- 
ciform  leaf;  fleshy  and  compressed,  resembling  a  sabre, 
faulchion  or  scymitar.  82.  folium  dolabriforme,  a  dola- 
briforme,  axe,  or  hatchet  shaped  leaf.  83.  folium  lin- 
guiforme,  a  tongue-shaped  leaf;  "  linear  and  fleshy, 
blunt  at  the  end,  convex  underneath,  and  having 
usually  a  cartilaginous  border."  84.  folium  anceps,  an 
ancipital  leaf;  having  two  prominent  longitudinal  angles, 
with  a  convex  disk.  85.  folium  triquetrum,  a  three- 
sided  leaf  (see  caulis  triqueter.)  86.  folium  sulcatum,  a 
furrowed,  grooved  or  fluted  leaf  (see  caulis  sulcatus.) 
87.  folium  carinatum,  a  carinated  leaf;  having  upon 
the  back  a  longitudinal  prominency,  like  the  keel  of  a 

*  See  Plate  I. 


\ 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  35 

vessel.  88.  folium  membranaceum,  a  membranaceous 
leaf;  having  no  perceptible  pulpy  matter  between  the 
two  surfaces. 

II.  "  Compound  leaves  are  such  whose  footstalk  is 
44  terminated  by  several  expansions;  in  other  words, 
44  whose  divisions  extend  to  the  common  footstalk, 
44  which  not  running  into  the  membranaceous  part  of 
44  the  leaf,  supports  the  several  lobes,  or  lesser  leaves, 
44  called  foliola,  of  which  the  compound  leaf  consists.' ' 

The  foliola,  or  leaflets,  as  Dr.  Martyn  translates  the 
word,  are  true  simple  leaves,  the  forms  of  which  are, 
like  those  of  the  simple  leaves  already  treated  of,  very 
numerous.  These  leaflets  are  sometimes  furnished  with 
particular  footstalks;  sometimes  they  are  destitute  of 
such  footstalks,  but  are  seated  upon  the  middle  rib  of 
the  compound  leaf.  The  former  leaflet  is  denominated 
foliolum  petiolatum,  a  petioled  leaflet  ;  the  latteryb/io- 
lum  sessile,  a  sessile  leaflet. 

In  the  compound  leaves,  of  which  I  am  speaking,  the 
central  longitudinal  fibre,  or  part  to  which  the  leaflets  are 
attached,  is  denominated  the  costa,  or  rib.  I  have  alrea- 
dy observed,  that  the  central  fibre  of  the  leaves,  whether 
simple  or  compound,  is  known  by  the  same  name.  This 
part  of  the  leaf  is  by  some  writers  denominated  a  nerve. 
This  term  ought  not  to  be  admitted  in  an  accurate  botani- 
cal language,  since  there  is  no  reason  to  believe  that  any 
peculiar  sensibility,  the  attribute  of  nervous  matter,  re- 
sides in  the  central  fibre.  It  has  also  been  called  a  vein. 
To  this  term  there  is  less  objection  than  to  the  former, 
since  it  is  demonstrated,  as  I  shall  afterwards  show,  that 
a  fluid  circulates  or  moves  through  every  part  of  the  leaf, 


36  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

along  the  course  of  the  middle  rib,  and  of  the  branches, 
which  it  sends  out.  Professor  Ludwig  has  proposed  to 
call  by  the  name  of  nerve,  the  prominent  division  of  the 
rib  of  the  leaf;  and  by  the  name  of  vein,  the  pellucid 
part  of  the  rib*.  I  think,  however,  that  no  manner  of  ad- 
vantage is  gained  by  this  nice  distinction. 

Compound  leaver  are  distinguished  by  Linnaeus, 
into,  1.  compound  leaves,  properly  so  called.  2.  leaves 
twice  compounded;  and,  3.  leaves  that  are  more  than 
twice  compounded- 

A.  The  folium  compositum,  or  compound  leaf  pro- 
perly so  called,  is  a  leaf  only  once  compounded,  and  ad- 
mits of  the  following  species  or  varieties,  which  I  shall 
mention  in  the  order  in  which  they  occur  in  the  Philo- 
sophia  Botanica.  1.  folium  articulatum,  a  jointed  leaf; 
•when  one  leaflet  grows  from  the  top  of  another.  2.  foli- 
um digit atum,  a  digitate  leaf;  when  a  simple  or  undi- 
vided footstalk  connects  several  distinct  leaflets  at  the 
end  of  it;  as  in  different  species  of  iEsculus,  or  Horse- 
chesnutf.  3.  folium  binatum,  a  binate  leaf;  having  a 
simple  petiole  connecting  two  leaflets  at  the  top  of  it;  as 
in  Jeffersonia  binata,  &c.  4.  folium  ternatum,  a  ternate 
leaf;  having  three  leaflets  on  one  petiole;  as  in  Trefoil, 
Strawberry,  &c.  5.  folium  quinatum,  a  quinate  leaf; 
having  five  leaflets  on  one  petiole.  (Linnaeus  considers 
the  binate,  the  ternate  and  the  quinate  leaves  as  species 
of  the  digitate  leaf).  6.  folium  pinnatum,  a  pinnate  leaf; 
composed  of  a  number  of  leaflets,  arranged,  like  wings, 
along  both  sides  of  the  middle  rib.     Of  this  beautiful 

*  Institutiones,  &c.  p.  26. 

t  See  the  plate  of  iEsculus  spirata,  in  this  work. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  37 

kind  of  leaf,  we  have  many  examples,  but  the  finest  oc- 
cur in  the  leguminous  plants,  as  they  are  called;  as  in 
different  species  of  Robinia,  Cassia,  &c.  &c.  &c* 

To  this  general  head  of  the  pinnate  leaf,  Linnaeus 
refers  various  species  or  varieties,  such  as  1.  folium 
pinnatum  cum  imparl;  unequally  pinnate,  when  the 
wings  composed  of  leaflets  are  germinated  by  a  single 
leaflet;  as  in  Robinia  viscosa.  2.  folium  pinnatum  cir- 
rhosum;  cirrhosely  pinnate;  terminated  by  a  tendril.  3. 
folium  pinnatum  abruptum;  abruptly  pinnate;  neither 
terminated  by  a  leaflet  nor  by  a  tendril.  4.  folium  pin- 
matum  opposite;  oppositely  pinnate ;  having  the  leaflets 
placed  opposite  to  each  other,  in  pairs,  as  in  Cassia  ma- 
rilandica.  5.  folium  pinnatum  alter natim;  alternately 
pinnate;  the  leaflets  ranged  alternately  along  the  common 
petiole.  6.  folium  pinnatum  interrupted  interruptedly 
pinnate;  having  smaller  leaflets  interposed  between  the 
principal  ones.  7 '.  folium  pinnatum  articulate;  jointed- 
ly  pinnate  ;  when  the  common  footstalk  is  articulated,  or 
jointed.  8.  folium  pinnatum  decursive;  decursively 
pinnate ;  when  the  leaflets  run  into  one  another  along  the 
common  petiole.  9.  folium  conjugatum,  a  conjugate 
leaf;  having  only  one  pair  of  leaflets. 

B.  T 'he  folium  compositum  decomposition:,  or  de- 
compound leaf,  is  so  called,  when  the  primary  petiole 
is  so  divided  that  each  part  forms  a  compound  leaf:  in 
other  words,  the  footstalk,  instead  of  supporting  small 
lobes,  or  leaflets,  on  the  top,  or  on  each  side,  bears  par- 
tial footsalks,  from  which  proceed  the  leaflets  on  both 
sides.    To  this  head,  Linnaeus  refers  the  following  spe- 

•  See  the  plates  of  Robinia  viscosa  and  Cassia  marilandica. 


38  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

cies  of  leaves,  viz.  1.  folium  bigeminatum,  or  bigemi- 
nate  leaf;  having  a  dichotomous  or  forked  petiole,  with 
several  leaflets  at  the  extremity  of  each  division.  2.  foli- 
um biternatum,  a  biternate  or  doubly-ternate  leaf;  when 
the  petiole  has  three  ternate  leaflets;  as  in  Epimedium.  3. 
folium  bipinnatum,  a  doubly- winged  leaf,  or  frond; 
when  the  common  petiole  has  on  each  side  of  it  pinnate 
leaves*.  4.  folium  pedatum;  apedateleaf;  when  a  bifid 
or  forked  petiole  connects  several  leaflets  on  the  inside 
only :  as  in  Passiflora,  Arum,  Helleborus  foetidus,  &c. 

C.  The  folium  compositum  supradeco?npositum% 
or  supradecompound  leaf,  is  a  species  of  compound  leaf, 
in  which  the  petiole,  being  several  times  divided,  con- 
nects many  leaflets,  each  part  forming  a  decompound 
leaf:  as  in  Pimpinella  glauca,  Ranunculus  rutaefolius, 
&c.  To  this  head  Linnaeus  refers  the  following  species, 
viz.  1.  folium  triternatum,  a  triternateor  triply-three- 
fold leaf;  when  the  petiole  has  three  biternate  leaves.  2. 
folium  tripinnatum,  a  tripinnate,  or  three  times  pinnate- 
leaf;  when  the  petiole  has  bipinnate  leaves  ranged  on 
each  side  of  it;  as  in  the  Pteris  aquilina,  and  other  ferns. 
3.  folium  tergeminum,  a  tergeminate  or  thrice-double 
leaf;  "  when  a  forked  petiole  is  subdivided,  having  two 
"  leaflets  at  the  extremity  of  each  subdivision;  and  also 
"  two  other  leaflets  at  the  division  of  the  common 
"  petiolef ." 

III.  The  Determination  or  Disposition  of  leaves, 
whether  they  be  simple  or  compound,  comprehends  the 
following  particulars,  viz.  #,  the  locus,  or  place   of  the 

•  As  in  Athamanta  Libanotis,  many  Ferns^c.  0 

f  Professor  Martyn. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  39 

leaf,  b,  its  situs,  or  situation,  c  its  insertio,  or  insertion, 
and  d  its  directio,  or  direction. 

a.  By  the  place  of  a  leaf,  botanists  mean  the  particu- 
lar part  where  it  is  attached  to  the  plant.  Under  this 
head,  Linnaeus  enumerates  the  following  species  of 
leaves,  viz.  1.  folium  seminale,  the  seed-leaf;  the  pri- 
mary leaves  of  the  plant;  being  the  cotyledons  or  lobes 
of  a  seed  expanded,  and  in  a  vegetating  state*.  2.  folium 
radicale,  a  root-leaf;  proceeding  immediately  from 
the  root,  and  not  adhering  to  the  stemf.  3.  folium 
caulinum,  a  cauline  leaf;  growing  immediately  on  the 
stem,  without  the  intervention  of  branches.  4.  folium 
rameum,  a  branch-leaf;  growing  on,  or  proceeding  from, 
a  branch.  5.  folium  axillare^n  axillary  leaf;  growing  at 
the  angle  which  is  formed  by  the  branch  with  the  stem. 
6.  folium  for  ale,  a  floral  leaf;  immediately  attending  the 
flower,  and  never  appearing  but  with  it.  This  last  must 
not  be  confounded  with  the  bractea,  or  bracte. 

b.  The  situation  of  leaves  respects  their  position  in 
regard  to  themselves.  Under  this  head,  Linnaeus  enu- 
merates the  following  species  of  leaves,  viz.  I.  folia 
stellata,  or  stellate  leaves;  when  more  leaves  than  two 
surround  the  stem  in  a  whorl,  "  or  radiate  from  the  stem 
"  like  the  spokes  of  a  wheel;' '  exemplified  in  the  Mede- 
ola  verticillata,  and  Cucubalus  stellatusj.  Such  leaves 
are  also  called  verticillate  leaves.  2. folia  terna,quaterna, 
quina, senate,  three-fold  leaves,  four-fold  leaves,  five- 
fold leaves,  six-fold  leaves:  different  species  or  varieties 

*  See  Plate  V' 

t  See  the  plates  of  Dionxa  Muscipula  and  Hypoxi*  erecta. 

^  See  the  figures  of  these  two  vegetable.* 


40  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

of  stellate  leaves,  when  the  leaves  grow,  in  a  whorl,  three 
together,  four,  five,  and  six  together.  3.  folia  oppositely 
opposite  leaves;  growing  in  pairs,  each  pair  decussated, 
or  crossing  that  above  and  below  it*."  4.  folia  altcrna^- 
ternate  leaves;  coming  out  one  after  or  above  another,  in 
a  regular  succession,  or  gradation;  as  in  Ludvigia  alter- 
nifoliaf.  The  term  alternate  is  opposed  to  the  opposite. 
5.  folia  sparsa,  scattered  leaves;  neither  opposite  nor 
alternate,  nor  in  any  regular  order  :  as  in  several  species 
of  Lily.  6.  folia  conferta,  crowded  or  clustered  leaves; 
leaves  so  copious  as  to  occupy  the  whole  of  the  branches, 
hardly  having  any  naked  space  between :  as  in  the  An- 
tirrhinum Linaria,  called  in  Pennsylvania,  Ransted- 
weed.  7.  folia  imbricata,  imbricate  leaves;  lying  over 
each  other  in  the  manner  of  tiles  upon  a  house.  8.  folia 
fasciculata,  fascicled  leaves;  growing  in  bundles  or 
bunches  from  the  same  point;  as  in  the  Larch-tree.  9. 
folia  disticha,  two  ranked  leaves;  leaves  respecting 
only  two  sidesof  the  branch,  though  inserted  on  all  parts 
of  it :  as  in  the  Fir,  and  Lonicera  Diervilla. 

c.  By  the  insertion  of  the  leaves,  is  meant  the  man- 
ner in  which  they  are  attached  to  the  plant.  To  this  head, 
Linneeus  refers  the  following  species  of  leaves,  viz.  1. 
folium  peltatum,  a  peltate,  or  target- shaped  leaf;  having 
the  footstalk  inserted  into  the  disk  of  the  leaf,  instead  of 
the  edge  or  base,  which  is  the  more  common  mode  of 
insertion :  as  in  different  species  of  Nymphsea,  such  as 
the  Nymphsea  Nelumbo,  Nymphsea  odorata,  &c.  in  the 
Tropaeolum,or  Indian-cress,  which  is  mentioned  in  Part 


*  See  the  figures  of  Collinsoiua  canadensis,  Veronica,  Rhexia  mariatia, 
Gerardia  flava,  and  other  plants  represented  in  this  work. 

t  See  the  figure. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  4r 

Second;  in  the  Geranium  peltatum,  and  the  Podophyllum 
peltatum,  or  May-apple.  2.  folium  petiolatum,  a  peti- 
olate  or  petioled  leaf ;  growing  on  a  petiole  or  foot- 
stalk, which  is  usually  inserted  into  its  base:  as  in  the 
greater  number  of  leaves.  The  term  is  opposed  to  sessile. 

3.  folium  sessile,  a  sessile  leaf;  a  leaf  which  is  immedi- 
ately connected  with  the  stem  or  branch,  without  the 
intervention  of  a  footstalk;   as  in  Rhexia  virginica*. 

4.  folium  decurrens,  a  decurrent  leaf;  a  sessile  leaf,  with 
its  base  extending  downwards  along  the  trunk,  or 
stem:  as  in  Symphytum, or  Comfrey,Carduus,  or  This- 
tle, &c.  5.  folium  amplexicaule,  a  stem-clasping-leaf, 
embracing,  clasping,  or  surrounding  the  stem  by  its 
base  (N.  B.  some  leaves  go  only  half  round  the  stem: 
these  are  denominated  folia  semi-amplexicaulia,  or 
half-stem-clasping  leaves).  6.  folium  perfoliatum,  a 
perfoliate  or  perforated  leaf;  having  the  base  of  the  leaf 
entirely  surrounding  the  stem  transversely;  so  that  the 
stem  appears  to  have  been  driven  through  the  middle 
of  the  leaf:  as  in  Bupleurum  rotundifolium,  Eupatori- 
um  perfoliatum,  or  Thorough- wort,  &c.  7.  folium  con- 
natum,  a  connate  leaf;  when  two  opposite  leaves  are 
so  united  at  their  bases  as  to  appear  as  though  they 
were  one  leaf:  exemplified  in  the  Garden  Honeysuckle, 
&c.  8.  folium  vaginans,  a  sheathing  leaff;  when  a  leaf 
invests  the  stem  or  branch  by  its  base,  in  form  of  a  tube : 
as  in  many  Grasses,  Polygonum,  Rumex,  &c. 

d.  With  respect  to  their  direction,  leaves  are  as 
follows,  viz.  1.  folium  adversumy  an  adverse  leaf;  when 
the  upper  side  is  turned  to  the  south:  as  in  Amomum. 
2.  folium  obliquum,  an  oblique  leaf,  having  the  base  di- 

*  Seethe  figure.  f  «  A  glove-like  leaf."    Milne. 

G 


42  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

rected  towards  the  sky,  and  the  apex,  or  point,  towards 
the  horizon:  as  in  Protea  and  Fritillaria.  3.  folium  in- 
fiexum,  an  inflex  or  inflected  leaf;  bent  upwards,  at  the 
end,  towards  the  stem.  4.  folium  adpressum,  an  appres- 
sed  leaf;  when  the  disk  approaches  so  near  to  the  stem, 
as  to  seem  as  if  it  was  pressed  to  it  by  violence.  5.  fo- 
lium erectum,  an  erect  or  upright  leaf;  when  it  makes 
with  the  stem  an  angle  so  acute  as  to  be  close  to  it.  6.fo- 
Hum  patens,  a  spreading  leaf;  forming  an  acute  angle 
with  the  stem  or  branch  upon  which  it  is  placed;  be- 
tween the  erect  and  horizontal  position.  7.  folium  hori- 
zontale,  a  horizontal  leaf;  making  a  right  angle  with  the 
stem,  the  upper  disk  being  turned  towards  the  heavens. 
8.  folium  reclinatum,  a  reclined  leaf;  bent  downwards, 
so  that  the  point  of  the  leaf  is  lower  than  the  base.  9. 
folium  revolutum,  a  revolute  leaf;  having  the  edges  roll- 
ed back,  or  towards  the  lower  surface;  as  in  Rosemary, 
Kalmia  glauca,  &c.  10.  folium  dependens;  a  leaf  hang- 
ing down,  or  pointing  directly  to  the  ground.  1 1,  folium 
radicans,  a  rooting  leaf;  a  leaf  shooting  forth  radicles,  or 
roots;  as  in  some  aquatic  plants.  (This  term  is  also  ap- 
plied to  those  leaves  which  being  planted  in  the  ground, 
there  strike  root  and  vegetate :  such  are  the  solid  and 
fleshy  leaves  of  several  of  the  Liliaceous  plants,  the  Aloe, 
Squill,  &c.  also  the  leaf  of  the  Orange,  and  many  other 
vegetables.)  12.  folium  natans,  a  floating  leaf;  a  leaf 
which  lies  or  floats  upon  the  surface  of  the  water ;  as  in 
Nymphsea,  Potamogeton,  Trapa  natans,  &c.  and  13, 
and,  lastly,  the  folium  demersum,  or  demerse  leaf;  call- 
ed also  a  drowned  or  sunk  leaf;  a  leaf  which  grows  be- 
low the  surface  of  the  water :  this  is  exemplified  in  Val- 
lisneria  spiralis  and  Vallisneria  americana,  especially 
the  male  plants;  and  in  many  other  aquatic  plants. — 
Some  plants  are  constantly  placed  below  the  surface  of 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  43 

the  water,  whilst  others  withdraw  themselves  to  the 
bottom  of  the  water,  in  which  they  grow,  in  order  to 
avoid  the  rigour  of  the  winter- season. 


In  treating  of  the  anatomical  structure,  and  of  the 
physiological  functions  of  the  leaves,  I  shall  have  parti- 
cular occasion  to  observe,  that  between  the  upper  and 
under  surfaces  of  leaves  there  is  a  very  essential  differ- 
ence. At  present,  it  will  be  sufficient  to  remark,  that,  in 
the  greater  number  of  leaves,  the  nerves  or  veins,  as  they 
have  been  called,  are  much  more  in  relief  upon  the  un- 
der than  upon  the  upper  surface ;  and  that,  in  general, 
the  upper  surface  is  of  a  deeper  green  than  the  under 
surfaee.  The  whole  surface  of  a  leaf  is  denominated  by 
Linnaeus,  Discus,  or  the  Disk.  The  upper  surface  is 
called  Discus  supinus;  the  under  Discus  promts,  the  up- 
per and  under  disk.  Pagina  superior,  and  Pagina  infe- 
rior are  also  the  names  of  the  two  disks,  or  surfaces.  The 
apex,  tip  or  end  of  the  leaf,  is  the  upper  extremity,  far- 
thest removed  from  the  base  or  insertion. 

Ludwig  and  some  other  writers  have  distinguished 
leaves  into  primary  and  accessary.  The  primary  leaves 
are  those  of  which  I  have  already  treated:  the  accessary 
leaves  are  those  which  Linnaeus  denominates  stipules  and 
bractea,  and  of  which  I  am  to  treat  particularly  under 
the  head  of  Fulcres. 

A  knowledge  of  the  leaves  of  plants  is  of  the  ut- 
most importance  in  the  study  of  Botany.  In  the  investi- 
gation of  the  species  of  vegetables,  there  are  no  parts, 
which  furnish  us  with  such  elegant  characters  or  marks 


44  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

as  do  the  leaves.  Nature  seems  to  have  taken  delight  in 
giving  to  the  leaves,  forms  almost  innumerable*.  With- 
out being  acquainted  with  the  principal  and  more  deter- 
minate of  these  forms,  it  is  impossible  to  make  an  ex- 
tensive progress  in  the  attainment  of  botanical  know- 
ledge. It  is  from  the  leaves,  that  some  of  the  most  emi- 
nent botanists,  particularly  Mr.  Ray,  Adrian  Van 
Royen,  and  Linnaeus,  have  taken  the  greater  number  of 
their  specific  names  or  characters  of  plants.  The  last- 
mentioned  writer  lays  it  down  as  an  axiom,  that  the 
leaves  exhibit  the  most  elegant  natural  differencesf. 
He  allows,  that  good  marks  of  distinction  are  aiforded 
by  the  root,  and  the  trunk,  of  which  I  have  already  treat- 
ed, and  also  by  the  various  other  parts  of  the  plant,  of 
which,  as  yet,  no  particular  notice  has  been  taken. 

As,  however,  the  leaves  of  plants  are  subject  to  great 
variation,  in  respect  to  their  forms  and  substance,  and 
even  in  respect  to  their  situation,  so  I  cannot  but  think, 
that  many  botanists  have  laid  too  implicit  a  dependence 
upon  their  characters  drawn  from  the  leaves.  Even 
Linnaeus  may,  with  strict  propriety,  be  included  in  the, 
list  of  these  botanists.  It  is  certain,  that  soil,  climate, 
elevation  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  and  other  circum- 
stances, considerably  vary  the  aspect  of  the  leaves  of 
vegetables.  How  different,  in  many  instances,  are  the 
leaves  of  the  same  species  of  plant,  when  growing  in  a 
northern  and  more  southern  climate  ?  How  different  the 
same  species  when  confined  to  the  valley  or  the  plain; 

*  "  Natura  in  nulla  parte  magis  fuit  polymorpha,  quam  in  foliis,  quorum 
"  itaque  species  numerosissimx,  studiose  aTyronibus  addiscendx."  Philosophia 
Botanica,  &c.  p.  218. 

f  "  Folia  elegantissimas  naturalissimas  differentia*  exhibent."  Philosophia 
Botanica,  &c.  p.  218.  .     , 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  45 

or  elevated,  far  above  the  level  of  the  sea,  upon  the  sides 
or  summits  of  lofty  mountains?  How  different  the  same 
species  when  growing  in  a  dry  and  in  a  wet  situation  ? 

Linnaeus  observes,  that  opposite  and  alternate 
leaves  generally  indicate  very  different  plants,  with  the 
exception  of  such  genera  as  contain  some  species  that 
have  opposite,  and  others  alternate  leaves*.  But  neither 
should  too  much  dependence  be  placed  upon  this  cir- 
cumstance, in  imposing  specific  names,  or  in  drawing 
the  characters  of  plants.  Not  unfrequently,  the  same 
individual  has  opposite  leaves  below,  and  alternate 
leaves  above  ;  or  opposite  above,  and  alternate  below. 
This,  indeed,  is  admitted  by  Linnaeus,  who  gives  a  small 
list  of  plants,  the  exceptions  to  his  general  axiomf. 
But  a  much  more  extensive  list  might  be  given.  I  can- 
not, in  this  place,  attempt  to  enter  into  the  investiga- 
tion of  the  subject.  I  may  observe,  however,  that  after 
a  pretty  extensive  examination  of  plants,  I  am  per- 
suaded, that  the  leaves  are  much  less  constantly  opposite 
or  alternate,  even  in  the  same  species,  than  many  writers 
have  imagined %. 

In  the  year  1751,  the  celebrated  nosologist,  Francis 
Boissier  Sauvages,  published  his  Methodus  foliorum 
seu  plant  es flora  Monspeliensis  juxta  foliorum  ordinem. 
In  this  work,  Sauvages  has  attempted  an  arrangement 
of  plants,  from  the  situation  or  position  of  their  leaves. 
But  no  succeeding  botanist,  that  I  know,  has  implicitly 
adopted  the  method  of  the  French  writer.  Nor  is  it  pro- 
bable, that  a  method  founded  upon  such  principles  will 

*  Philosophia  Botanica,  &c.  p.  102.  f  Ibid.  p.  103. 

i  Sw  the  explanation  of  the  figure  of  Ludvigia  alterniTolifr. 


46  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

ever  be  adopted  by  genuine  botanists,  in  pursuit  of  de- 
terminate characters,  or  in  search  of  nature's  scheme. 
Innumerable  natural  families  of  plants,  such  as  the  Ge- 
rania,  Saxifragse,  Ranunculi,  Veronicae,  not  to  mention 
the  treasures  which  the  great  continent  of  New-Holland 
is  pouring  upon  us,  forbid  such  an  arrangement.  An 
arrangement  of  vegetables  founded  upon  the  resem- 
blances or  differences  of  their  leaves,  will  be  even  much 
more  abominable,  than  the  arrangements  of  those  natu- 
ralists who  have  associated  together  quadrupeds,  and 
other  mammalia,  from  the  affinities  of  their  teeth  and 
claws. 


B.  ll.  Of  the  Anatomical  Structure  of  Leaves. 

The  anatomical  structure  of  leaves  is  the  subject 
which  next  claims  our  attention.  It  must  be  evident, 
however,  that  this  is  not  the  place  to  discuss  this  sub- 
ject, in  all  its  parts.  I  have  not  yet  treated  of  the  ge- 
neral anatomy  of  the  plant;  of  the  spiral  and  other  ves- 
sels which  enter  into  the  composition  of  almost  every 
part  of  the  plant.  I  cannot,  therefore,  at  present,  at- 
tempt any  thing  further  than  a  very  superficial  view  of 
the  structure  of  leaves.  My  attention  will  necessarily 
be  again  turned  to  this  subject,  in  various  parts  of  this 
work. 

When  the  leaf  of  a  plant  is  torn  in  a  horizontal  di- 
rection, we  observe  exteriorly  a  membrane,  which  is 
generally  thin,  and  almost  pellucid.  This  membrane 
has  been  called  the  epidermis,  or  scarf-skin,  of  the  leaf. 
It  has,  with  more  propriety,  been  denominated  the  cor- 
tex, or  bark  of  the  leaf.    This  bark  does  not  adhere  to 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  47 

the  subjacent  parts  with  equal  firmness  in  all  plants ; 
nor,  even  on  the  two  surfaces  of  the  leaves,  in  the  same 
plant.  It  possesses  this  singular  property,  that  when 
you  tear  it  off,  it  quickly  folds  itself  inwards;  but 
when  it  is  dry,  it  is  twisted  in  a  contrary  direction. 
This  circumstance  has  induced  some  writers*  to  ima- 
gine, that  the  leaf  contains  two  distinct  systems  of  ves- 
sels. The  pili,  or  hairs,  which  cover  the  surfaces  of 
many  leaves,  appear  to  be  seated  in  the  bark.  It  is  this 
part  also,  that  is  so  frequently  marked  with  white  and 
other  spots,  in  diseased  plants.  Sometimes,  at  least,  as 
in  the  Cyclamen,  or  Sow-bread,  the  disease  is  not  deep- 
er situated  than  the  bark  :  in  some  plants,  however,  it 
extends  further,  even  into  the  parenchymatous  portion 
of  the  leaf. 

The  bark  of  the  leaf  appears  to  be  composed  of  an 
epidermis,  properly  so  called,  and  a  thicker  substance, 
which,  for  distinction  sake,  might  be  denominated  the 
cutis,  or  skin.  It  is  the  opinion  of  some  physiologists, 
that  this  compound  leaf-bark  is  a  continuation  of  the 
outer  and  inner  barks  of  the  stem  and  branches,  to  which 
the  leaf  is  attached:  a  supposition  which  seems  extreme- 
ly plausible,  since  the  leaf  appears  to  be,  in  fact,  no- 
thing but  a  kind  of  fiat  or  compressed  petiole,  as  is  easi- 
ly discovered  by  macerating  a  leaf  and  petiole  in  water. 
Now,  the  petiole  can,  in  many  plants,  be  shown  to  be 
composed  of  the  outer  and  inner  barks,  the  wood,  and 
the  medullary  substance  of  the  common  trunk  or  stem. 

The  bark  of  the  leaf  is  furnished  with  a  number  of 
glandular-like  bodies,  which  are  of  different  forms  and 

*  Mr.  De  Sausrare,  at  least. 


48  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

sizes  in  different,  and  even  in  the  same,  species  of  vege- 
table. The  late  learned  Mr.  Horace  Benedict  De  Saus- 
sure  has  endeavoured  to  show,  in  an  express  work* 
on  the  bark  of  the  leaves  and  petals  of  plants,  that  these 
organs  are  real  glands,  which  perform  the  office  of  ani- 
mal glands;  the  secretion  and  the  preparation  of  the 
juices  of  the  leaf.  It  is  known,  that  these  cortical  glands 
are  found  upon  both  disks  or  surfaces  of  the  leaves  of 
the  herbaceous  vegetables:  but  it  has  been  assertedf, 
that  in  the  arborescent  vegetables  they  are  exclusively 
confined  to  the  under  surface.  This,  when  it  is  consi- 
dered, that  between  trees  or  shrubs  and  the  herbaceous 
vegetables,  nature  has  not  placed  any  decided  distinc- 
tion, seems  not  at  all  probable.  But  Mr.  De  Saussure 
has  shown,  that  these  glands  exist  upon  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  leaves  of  the  Juniper. 

The  cortical  glands  adhere  to  the  beautiful  net- 
work of  which  I  am  presently  to  give  an  account,  and 
are  surrounded  by  a  fibre,  or  small  vessel.  Between 
the  gland  and  the  vessel,  there  is,  however,  an  interval. 
The  shape  of  the  gland  is  that  of  an  oval  oblong  :  the 
surrounding  vessel  is  of  an  eliptical  form.  There  is  an 
evident  communication  between  the  vessels  of  the  cor- 
tical net  and  this  circumambient  vessel.  Mr.  De  Saus- 
sure also  observed  a  small  and  slender  vessel  proceed- 
ing from  the  extremity  of  the  gland,  and  communica- 
ting with  the  circumambient  vessel  of  the  gland.  This 
beautiful  structure  of  the  bark  of  the  leaf  occasions  us 
to  regret,  that  hitherto,  we  have  attained  to  so  little  cer- 
tain knowledge  concerning  the  real  uses  of  the  glandu- 

*  Observations  sur  l'ecorce  des  feuilles  et  petales.     A  Geneve:  1762. 
t  By  Mr.  Bonnet. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  49 

lar-like  structure.  Meanwhile,  there  seems  to  be  little 
reason  to  doubt,  that  the  glands  are  a  necessary  part  of 
the  vascular  system,  which  is  next  to  be  mentioned. 

Under  the  bark  of  the  leaf,  we  meet  with  a  beauti- 
ful net- work  of  vessels,  which,  whether  they  be  arteries, 
veins,  or  absorbing  lymphatics,  are  evidently  a  continu- 
ation of  the  vessels  of  the  common  stem,  and  petiole. 
This  net- work  is  known  by  the  name  of  the  cortical  net 
of  the  leaf.  It  is  the  rete  corticis  of  Mr.  De  Saussure. 
It  is  composed  of  a  great  number  of  vessels,  which,  by 
crossing  each  other,  and  often  anastamosing  (for  the  lan- 
guage of  the  animal  anatomists  may,  with  strict  propri- 
ety, be  extended  to  vegetables),  form  the  net-like  ap- 
pearance, of  which  I  am  speaking.  The  forms  of  the 
areas  between  the  thread-like  vessels  composing  the  net 
are  very  different  in  different  vegetables;  and  even  in 
different  parts  of  the  same  vegetable.  These  areas  are 
more  regular  upon  the  upper  than  upon  the  under  side 
of  the  leaf,  and  they  are  narrower  and  longer  towards 
the  petiole,  or  foot- stem  of  the  leaf,  than  towards  the 
middle  and  anterior  part.  Each  area  is  commonly  made 
up  of  six  threads,  so  as  sometimes  to  give  to  it  an  hex- 
agonal form.  More  generally,  however,  the  areas  are 
formed  by  right  lines. 

The  fibres  or  threads  of  the  cortical  net  are,  un- 
questionably, vessels.  They  are  transparent,  and  it  is 
highly  probable  are  a  true  system  of  absorbents,  fur- 
nished with  their  proper  glands.  In  the  leaves  of  many 
plants,  they  are  sufficiently  distinct,  without  the  aid  of 
colouring  injections:  but  they  are  seen  to  the  greatest 
advantage,  in  many  other  plants,  by  immersing  a  com- 
mon stem  with  a  number  of  leaves,  or  a  single  leaf  with 

H 


50  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

its  petiole,  in  the  diluted  juice  of  the  Phytolacca  decan- 
dra :  or  in  a  solution  of  the  sulphat  of  iron,  and  then 
transferring  them  to  a  decoction  of  galls.  In  the  form- 
er case,  the  cortical  net  assumes  a  fine  purple  colour; 
in  the  latter  it  is  as  distinctly  seen,  being  of  a  dark  brown 
or  ink  colour. 

In  the  leaves  of  the  Maple,  the  cortical  net  is  simple; 
in  those  of  the  Holly,  it  is  double;  and  it  appears  to  be 
triple  in  the  leaves  of  the  Orange*. 

Under  the  cortical  net,  and  in  the  areal  interstices 
between  the  vascular  fibres,  we  meet  with  another  sub- 
stance, which  has  received  the  name  of  the  parenchyma, 
the  pulp,  or  pith  of  the  leaf.  This  substance  is  of  a  ten- 
der and  cellular  nature,  but  is  by  no  means  inorganic, 
or  destitute  of  vessels.  On  the  contrary,  it  appears  to  be 
distinctly  composed  of  larger  vessels  than  those  which 
compose  the  cortical  net;  at  the  same  time  that  the 
areal  interstices  are  larger  than  those  of  the  net.  It  is 
this  pulpy  substance  which  is  so  frequently, consumed 
by  the  armies  of  insects,  which  spread  their  hateful  ra- 
vages through  the  gardens,  the  fields,  and  the  forests  of 
our  earth.  Leaving  entirely,  or  in  a  great  measure,  un- 
touched, the  net-like  work  which  has  been  mentioned, 
we  often  observe  the  leaves  of  a  tree  reduced,  by  cater- 
pillars, and  various  other  species  of  insects,  to  the  ap- 
pearance of  mere  dead  skeletons.  It  is  by  macerating, 
for  a  considerable  time,  in  water,  the  leaves  of  plants, 
and  thus  reducing  the  parenchymatous  part  to  a  more 
tender  pulp,  and  afterwards  expressing  it  out,  that  we 
form  those  beautiful  preparations  of  leaves,  which  are  so 
well  calculated  to  show  the  fabric  of  the  cortical  net. 

*  Professor  Ludvvig. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  51 

Such  are  the  observations  which  I  have  to  offer,  in 
this  part  of  my  work,  on  the  subject  of  the  anatomical 
structure  of  leaves.  I  am  sensible  how  imperfect  I  have 
left  the  subject.  But  the  limits  allotted  to  these  Ele- 
ments, do  not  permit  me  to  dwell  extensively  upon  any 
one  of  the  various  questions,  which  it  is  my  duty  to 
examine. 


C.  III.  Of  the  Uses  of  the  Leaves. 

A  subject  more  pleasing  than  any  of  those  which 
I  have  hitherto  touched  upon,  now  presents  itself  to  my 
view.  I  am  to  inquire  into  the  uses  of  the  leaves  in 
the  vegetable  economy.  This  is  a  question  of  conside- 
rable difficulty.  It  has  exercised  the  pens  of  some  of 
the  happiest  talents,  during  the  period  of  near  two  cen- 
turies. I  exceedingly  regret,  that  I  shall  be  obliged  to 
leave  the  subject  involved  in  obscurity  and  doubt. 

There  is,  I  believe,  no  part  or  organ  of  the  vege- 
table body,  concerning  the  uses  of  which  physiologists 
have  been  more  divided  in  opinion,  than  respecting  the 
leaves.  It  is  not  my  intention,  in  the  following  concise 
view  of  the  uses  of  these  organs,  to  detail  the  opinion  or 
hypothesis  of  every  author  on  the  subject.  It  is  proper, 
however,  that  I  should  notice  a  few  of  the  principal 
opinions,  before  I  particularly  attend  to  that  one,  which 
seems  especially  entitled  to  our  examination. 

The  leaves  have  been  considered  as  the  perspiratory 
organs  of  the  vegetable*.   But  Dr.  Hales  made  an  expe- 

*  J-  S.  Guettard,  and  many  other  writers 


52  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

riment  which  renders  it  very  improbable,  that  the  leaves 
are  merely  perspiratory  organs.  This  learned  writer 
having  cut  off  some  branches  of  trees  with  apples  upon 
them,  and  then  stripped  off  the  leaves,  found  that  one 
apple  perspired  or  exhaled  about  the  same  quantity 
of  fluid  as  two  of  the  leaves,  the  surfaces  of  which 
were  nearly  equal  to  the  surface  of  the  apple*.  This 
simple  experiment  proved,  that  both  the  fruit,  and 
the  leaves  perspired  :  it,  certainly,  gave  no  ground  for 
asserting,  that  the  leaves  are  exclusively  the  organs  of 
perspiration. 

By  some  writers,  the  leaves  have  been  deemed  the 
organs  destined  for  the  excretion  of  excrementitious  jui- 
ces. Dr.  Hales,  however,  has  shown,  that  in  moist  wea- 
ther the  leaves  do  not  perspire  at  all.  It  has  also  been 
observed,  that  "  as  the  vapour  exhaled  from  vegeta- 
"  bles  has  no  taste,"  this  idea  is  not  more  probable 
than  that  which  considers  the  leaves  as  perspiratory 
organst-  This,  to  me,  does  not  appear  to  be  very  satis- 
factory reasoning.  Certainly,  a  fluid  which,  to  our  or- 
gans, has  no  perceptible  taste,  may  be  noxious  to,  and 
therefore  proper  to  be  thrown  out  of,  the  body  of  the 
vegetable.  But  the  fluid  perspired  by  the  leaves  of  many 
vegetables  is  by  no  means  entirely  tasteless;  and  we 
well  know,  that  it  is  often  a  fluid  which  exerts  a  very 
decided,  and  even  powerful,  effect  upon  our  organs  of 
smell.  These  circumstances  do  not,  however,  invalidate 
the  opinion,  that  the  leaves  are  pulmonary  organs.  On 
the  contrary,  they  even  give  additional  weight  to  that 
opinion. 

•  Statical  Essays,  &c  Vol.  I.  p.  30. 
f   Dr.  Darwin. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  53 

Some  writers*  are  of  opinion,  that  the  leaves  absorb 
a  large  quantity  of  nutriment,  which  is  conveyed  to 
every  part  of  the  plant.  As  the  leaves  are  so  abundantly 
supplied  with  vessels,  which  appear  to  be  absorbents; 
and  as  the  leaves  of  many  vegetables  when  entirely  de- 
tached from  the  parent  grow  extremely  well,  we  can 
hardly  doubt,  that  they  are,  in  some  measure,  the  organs 
of  nutrition  to  the  plant. 

Some  ingenious  philosophers  have  supposed,  that 
the  leaves  acquire  the  electrical  fluid  from  the  atmos- 
phere; whilst  others,  with  perhaps  as  much  propriety, 
have  imagined,  that  these  organs  derive  a  certain  phlo- 
gistic or  inflammable  principle  from  the  light  of  the  sun; 
because  the  leaves  of  so  many  vegetables  are  observed 
to  present  their  upper  disk  or  surface  to  the  light.  With 
respect  to  these  two  hypotheses,  a  very  ingenious  philo- 
sopher! has  observed,  first,  "  that  no  electricity  is  shewn 
"  by  experiments  to  descend  through  the  stems  of  trees, 
"  except  in  thunder-storms;  and  that  if  the  final  cause 
*'  of  vegetable  leaves  had  been  to  conduct  electricity 
"  from  the  air,  they  ought  to  have  been  gilded  leaves 
"  with  metallic  stems":  secondly,  "  that  if  the  final 
"  cause  of  vegetable  leaves  had  been  to  absorb  light, 
"  they  ought  to  have  been  black  and  not  green;  as  by 
f  Dr.  Franklin's  experiment,  who  laid  shreds  of  various 
"  colours  on  snow  in  the  sun-shine,  the  black  sunk 
V  much  deeper  than  any  other  colour,  and  consequent- 
"  ly  absorbed  much  more  light  J."  We  shall  afterwards, 

*  Hales,  Lars  Kullin,  Dr.  Adam  Hunter,  Dr.  Priestley,  Sec 

t  Dr.  Darwin. 

|  Phytologia,  &c.  Sect.  iv. 


54  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

however,  have  occasion  to  show,  that  light  is  essentially- 
necessary  to  the  just  nourishment  and  complete  health 
of  the  greater  number  of  plants. 

It  has  been  supposed*,  that  the  leaves  are  a  kind  of 
stomach  or  digestive  organ  to  the  plant;  that  the  nutri- 
tious juices,  which  arc  absorbed  by  the  roots,  are  con- 
veyed to  the  leaves,  where  they  undergo  a  more  com- 
plete assimilatfon,  which  better  befits  them  for  the  nu- 
trition of  the  plant.  But  the  function  of  vegetable  diges- 
tion is  by  no  means  exclusively  confined  to  the  leaves; 
and  it  has  not  been  proved,  that  these  beautiful  organs 
do,  in  fact,  perform  any  very  essential  change  in  the  ob- 
vious or  intimate  properties  of  the  fluids  or  other  mat- 
ters, which  are  originally  taken  up  by  the  roots.  We  are 
certain,  that  the  leaves  are  incapable  of  essentially  alter- 
ing the  taste,  smell,  colour  and  other  properties  of  many 
of  the  bodies  which  their  vessels  absorb :  and  it  would 
be  rather  unphilosophical  to  contend,  that  they  are  the 
digestive  organs  of  the  plant,  unless  we  were  able  to 
prove  (what  has  not  yet  been  proved),  that  the  nutri- 
tious matters  which  are  conveyed  from  the  root  to  the 
leaves,  are  again  returned  by  the  leaves  to  the  stem,  and 
other  parts  of  the  body. 

More  probable  than  any  of  the  opinions,  that  I 
have  mentioned,  is  that  which  ascribes  to  the  leaves  a 
kind  of  respiratory  function.  This  opinion,  which  was 
early  adopted  by  some  of  the  ingenious  philosophers  to 
whom  we  are  indebted  for  much  of  our  knowledge  of  the 
phvsiology  of  vegetables,  very  naturally  resulted  from 
a  few  simple,  but  conclusive  experiments.     Mr.  Papin 

*  By  Gustavus  Bonde,  Professor  Ludwig,  Sir  John  Hill,  &c 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  55 

found,  that  a  plant  which  he  had  put  into  an  exhausted 
receiver,  lived  a  long  time,  provided  only  the  leaves 
were  permitted  to  receive  the  influence  of  the  air.  But 
when  the  whole  plant  was  put  into  the  receiver,  with- 
out the  precaution  just  mentioned,  it  died  very  soon. 
Hence,  it  was  sufficiently  evident,  that  the  leaves  ab- 
sorbed or  inspired  air.  Moreover,  it  had  long  been 
known,  that  the  leaves  of  vegetables  were  destroyed  by 
anointing  their  upper  surface  with  oil.  This  seemed  so 
analogous  to  the  effect  of  oil  in  killing  insects,  to  which 
it  was  applied,  that  it  was  naturally  inferred,  that  the  oil 
operated  by  stopping  air-vessels  in  the  leaves,  as  well  as 
in  the  insects.  About  the  year  1746,  Lars  Kullin,  a 
Swedish  writer,  endeavoured  to  prove,  that  the  leaves 
of  trees  absorb  the  external  air,  and  that  they  afterwards 
exhale  both  air  and  water. 

L  i  n  n  je  u  s  has  very  expressly  denominated  the  leaves, 
the  lungs  of  vegetables*.  I  am  not  able,  however,  to 
discover,  that  the  prince  of  naturalists  had  advanced 
one  step  further,  in  the  knowledge  of  the  functions  of 
the  leaves,  than  many  of  his  contemporaries,  and  even 
his  predecessors.  To  the  great  loss  of  natural  science, 
both  Linnaeus  and  Haller  were  taken  from  their  labours 
in  this  world,  soon  afterf  the  commencement  of  that 
brilliant  era  of  the  xvm  century,  when  Priest  ley,  and 
other  illustrious  men,  turned  their  attention  to  the  rela- 
tive relations  which  subsist  between  the  atmosphere  and 
vegetables.    Had  the  Swede  and  the  Swiss  philosophers 

*  "  Folia  in  motu  constituta  &  perspirantia  hoc  modo  pulmonibus  respon- 
"  dent ;  in  se  tamen  re  ipsa  musculi  analoga  sunt,  licet  non  uti  in  animalibus 
"  cauda  afiixa,  cum  motus  voluntarius  in  his  dari  nequeat."  Philosophia  Botanica. 
fcc.  p.  93. 

t  Haller  died  in  1777.  and  Linnaeus  on  the  eleventh  of  January,  1778. 


56  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

lived  a  few  years  longer,  they  would,  in  all  probability, 
have  essentially  changed  some  of  their  opinions,  res- 
pecting the  functions  of  plants  and  animals. 

The  learned  and  ingenious  Dr.  Erasmus  Darwin  has 
taken  much  pains  to  prove,  that  the  leaves  are  not  only 
the  lungs  of  vegetables,  but  that  the  office  of  these  leaves 
is  extremely  similar  to  that  of  the  lungs  of  man,  and 
many  other  animals.  The  following  is  the  substance  of 
the  author's  arguments  and  speculations  on  the  subject. 

1.  The  leaves  "consist  of  an  artery,  which  carries  the 
44  sap  to  the  extreme  surface  of  the  upper  side  of  the 
44  leaf,  and  there  exposes  it  under  a  thin  moist  pellicle 
44  to  the  action  of  the  air;  and  of  veins,  which  there 
44  collect  and  return  it  to  the  foot-stalk  of  the  leaf,  like 
44  the  pulmonary  system  of  animals.  2.  In  this  organ 
44  the  pellucid  sap  is  changed  to  a  coloured  blood,  like 
44  the  chyle  in  passing  through  the  lungs  of  animals. 
44  3.  The  leaves  of  aquatic  plants  are  furnished  with  a 
44  larger  surface,  and  with  points  like  the  gills  of  aquatic, 
44  animals.  4.  The  upper  sides  of  aerial  leaves  repel 
44  moisture,  like  the  larynx  of  animals.  5.  Leaves  are 
44  killed  by  smearing  them  with  oil,  which  in  the  same 
44  manner  destroys  insects,  by  stopping  their  spiracula, 
44  or  the  air-holes  to  their  lungs.  6.  Leaves  have  muscles 
44  appropriated  to  turn  them  to  the  light,  which  is  neces- 
44  sary  to  their  respiration — 7.  To  this  may  be  added  an 
44  experiment  of  Mr.  Papin,  related  by  M.  Duhamel*. 
44  He  put  an  intire  plant  into  the  exhausted  receiver  of 
44  an  air-pump,  and  it  soon  perished;  but  on  keeping  the 
44  whole  plant  in  this  vacuum,  except  the  leaves,  which 

*  La  Physique  de*  Avbres,  &c.  Premiere  Partie.  p.  169,  170 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  57 

•*  were  exposed  to  the  air,  it  continued  to  live  a  long 
'*  time,  which  he  adds  is  a  proof  that  the  leaves  are  the 
M  organs  of  respiration*." 

I  have  little  hesitation  in  believing,  that  the  leaves 
are  somehow  essentially  concerned  in  the  function  of 
vegetable  respiration.  But  I  think  it  is  far  from  being 
satisfactorily  proved,  that  there  exists  in  the  leaf,  a  two- 
fold system  of  vessels,  answering  to  the  pulmonary  ar- 
tery and  the  veins  of  man,  and  other  animals.  I  do  not, 
however,  deny,  that  such  a  system  does  exist  in  the 
structure  of  the  leaf.  I  even  think  it  probable  that  it 
does.  I  cannot,  however,  consider  as  decided  the  ex- 
periments which  Dr.  Darwin  has  adduced,  in  support  of 
his  opinion.  I  have  made  similar  experiments  with  lac- 
tescent and  other  vegetable  leaves,  immersing  them  in 
colouring  matters,  such  as  the  juice  of  the  Phytolacca, 
or  Poke,  decoction  of  galls,  solution  of  the  sulphats  of 
iron,  and  copper,  &x.  In  making  these  experiments,  it 
was  easy  to  perceive,  that  a  system  of  vessels,  which  runs 
between  the  bark  and  the  wood  of  the  stem,  enters  the 
petiole,  its  continuation  the  middle  rib,  and  is  finallv 
_  beautifully  spread  upon  the  disks  or  surfaces  of  the  leaf. 
But  I  have  not  been  able  to  convince  myself,  that  the 
colouring  matter  is  exclusively  diffused,  in  the  first  in- 
stance, upon  the  upper  disk.  In  some  of  my  plants,  in- 
deed, the  colouring  matter  was  most  distinctly  perceiv- 
ed upon  the  superior  surface  of  the  leaf,  as  in  Dr.  Dar- 
win's  experiments  with  Euphorbia  helioscopia,  Picris, 
and  Senecio  bicolor.  In  other  plants,  however,  it  was 
sufficiently  evident,  that  the  colouring  matter,  after  pass- 
ing through  the  petiole,  moved  more  especially  along  the 

•    Phytol~$;;a.  Sec.  Seet.  iv 


58  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

lower  side  of  the  middle  rib,  and  from  this  was  carried 
through  the  vascular  net  of  the  leaf,  nearer  to  the  lower 
than  to  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaf.  These  experiments 
were  so  frequently  repeated  (under  a  favourite  impres- 
sion too,  that  there  is  in  plants,  as  well  as  in  animals,  a 
true  circulation), that  I  cannot  imagine,  that  I  have  been 
deceived  in  my  observation. 

It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  the  upper  sur- 
face of  the  leaves  of  vegetables,  does  seem  admirably 
adapted  for  exposing  the  vegetable  blood  to  the  action 
of  the  atmosphere;    and    it    is    highly   probable, 

THAT  FROM  THE  INFLUENCE  AND  ABSORPTION  OF 
AIR,  OR  ONE  OF  THE  COMPONENT  PARTS  OF  THE 
ATMOSPHERIC  MASS,  THE  JUICES  OF  THE  LEAVES  DO 
UNDERGO   SOME  VERY   ESSENTIAL    AND    INDISPENSI- 

ble  change.  Perhaps,  the  blood  of  the  leaf  is  oxy- 
genated, or  derives  from  the  atmosphere,  or  from  the 
water,  in  which  it  grows,  a  portion  of  vital  air ;  much 
in  the  same  manner  that  the  blood  of  man  and  other 
land-animals  is  oxygenated  by  the  vital  air,  which  exerts 
its  effects  upon  this  fluid,  through  the  medium  of  the 
lungs.  The  blood  of  man  and  many  other  animals  does, 
unquestionably,  derive  its  lively  crimson  color  from  the 
contact  and  absorption  of  vital  air.  It  is  even  probable, 
that  this  vital  air  (so  necessary  to  the  maintainance  of 
animal  life)  is  the  great  source  or  foundation  of  the  ir- 
ritability of  the  system;  since  in  the  beautiful  experi- 
ment of  Charles  Frederick  Wolf,  the  attribute  of  irrita- 
bility was  first  observed,  in  the  incubated  chick,  at  the 
very  moment  that  the  blood  acquired  its  red  colour*. 
Dr.  Darwin,  indeed,  seems  to  have  no  doubts,  that  in 

*  Ttieoria  Generarionis.  1759.  4to. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  59 

the  lactescent  plants,  with  which  he  made  his  experi- 
ments, the  milky  fluid,  after  having  been  exposed  to  the 
atmosphere,  upon  the  upper  surface  of  the  leaves,  was 
evidently  of  a  much  whiter  colour  on  the  under  surface. 
In  the  former  case,  as  we  have  seen,  he  supposes  the 
blood  was  carried,  by  an  artery,  from  the  petiole  to  the 
extremity  of  the  leaf;  and  in  the  latter  case,  returned  by 
a  system  of  veins,  corresponding  to  the  pulmonary 
veins,  from  the  extremity  to  the  petiole.  I  have  already, 
however,  mentioned  the  experiments,  which  have  com- 
pelled me  to  entertain  some  doubts  as  to  the  reality  of 
a  circulation  in  the  leaves  of  plants.  It  is,  certainly,  too 
soon  to  speak  decidedly  on  this  subject.  Many  more 
experiments  must  be  made,  before  the  cautious  philo- 
sopher will  think  himself  excusable  in  implicitly  admit- 
ting, or  absolutely  rejecting,  the  experiments  of  Darwin. 

Whatever  may  be  the  precise  function  of  the 
leaves  in  the  vegetable  economy,  it  is  generally  agreed 
among  botanists,  that  a  different  office  belongs  to  the 
upper  and  to  the  under  sides  of  these  organs.  Thus, 
Dr.  Darwin  asserts,  that  it  is  the  upper  surface  only, 
that  respires.  He  justly  remarks,  that  this  surface,  in 
many  plants  "strongly  repels  moisture,"  as  in  cabbage- 
leaves,  where  the  particles  of  rain  that  lie  over  them, 
without  touching  them,  have  the  appearance  of  globules 
of  quicksilver.  It  appears,  likewise,  from  actual  expe- 
riments, that  the  leaves  of  many  plants,.when  they  were 
laid  with  their  upper  surfaces  upon  the  water,  withered 
almost  as  soon  as  in  the  dry  air,  though  the  same  leaves, 
when  they  were  placed  with  their  under  surfaces  upon 
the  water,  continued  green  many  days.  These  experi- 
ments, for  which  we  are  indebted  to  Mr.  Bonnet,  in- 
contestibly  proved,  that  with  respect  to  the  plants  which 


60  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

were  the  subjects  of  his  experiments,  there  was  an  es- 
sential difference  as  to  the  absorbing  capacity  of  the  two 
surfaces  of  the  leaves:  the  upper  surface  absorbing  much 
less  than  the  under  surface. 

Mr.  Bonnet  has  also  showqg  by  a  number  of  well- 
conducted  experiments,  that  the  tipper  surface  or  disk 
of  the  leaves  of  many  plants,  exhaled  much  less  than  the 
under  surface.  He  put  the  stalks  of  many  leaves,  fresh 
plucked,  into  glass  tubes  filled  with  water,  having  pre- 
viously covered  with  oil  or  varnish  the  upper  surfaces  of 
some,  and  the  under  surfaces  of  others.  Our  ingenious 
philosopher  uniformly  observed,  by  the  sinking  of  the 
water  in  the  tubes,  that  the  exhalation  from  the  under 
surfaces,  was  more  than  double  what  it  was  from  the  up- 
per surfaces.  In  a  supplement  to  his  great  work*,  on 
the  uses  of  the  leaves,  Bonnet  has  further  observed,  that 
the  inferior  surface  of  the  leaves  of  some  aquatic  plants 
is  much  better  adapted  for  the  purpose  of  absorption  than 
the  superior  surface.  He  made  his  experiments  with  the 
leaves  of  a  species  of  Nympheea,  or  Water-Lily.  It 
must  not  be  forgotten,  however,  in  this  inquiry,  that 
Saussure  has  discovered  upon  the  upper  surface  of  the 
leaves  of  some  vegetables,  a  system  of  vessels,  which  ap- 
peared to  that  judicious  author  to  be  the  same  as  the 
absorbing  system  of  the  lower  surfaces  of  other  leavesf. 
Upon  the  whole,  there  seems  to  be  little  reason  to  doubt, 
that  both  the  upper  and  the  under  surfaces  of  the  leaves 
of  vegetables  arc  furnished  with  their  absorbing  vessels  ; 
and  it  is  highly  probable,  that,  in  many  plants,  air  is  ab- 


•  Recherches  sur  J'usage  des  feuilles  dans  les  plantes,  &c.    A  Gottingtie 
S  L<  ide  :  1754.  4to. 

\  Ste  pa^e  48. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  61 

sorbed  as  well  by  the  latter  as  by  the  former  of  these 
surfaces. 

In  concluding  this  subject  of  the  uses  of  leaves,  I 
must  be  permitted  to  observe,  that  some  late  philoso- 
phers have,  in  my  opinion,  too  narrowly  restricted  the 
utility  of  the  leaves  ttt  a  single  office.  I  cannot  help 
thinking,  that  the  office  of  the  leaves,  is  a  varied  and  a 
complex  one.  This,  indeed,  I  have  already  intimated. 
Dr.  Hales  was  of  the  same  opinion,  a  long  time  ago. 
In  his  Statical  Essays,  a  work  which  will  be  read  and 
admired  by  a  distant  posterity,  the  amiable  author  does 
not  hesitate  to  consider  the  leaves  as  the  vegetable  or- 
gans of  nutrition,  respiration,  perspiration,  and  excre- 
tion. The  experiments  of  Hales  render  it  probable,  that 
thus  various  are  the  functions  of  the  leaves.  I  am  per- 
suaded, that  future  experiments  will  decidedly  prove, 
that  the  leaves  are  not  merely  the  lungs  and  perspiratory 
organs  of  the  vegetable. 


D.  IV.  Miscellaneous  Circumstances  relative  to  the 
Natural  History  of  Leaves. 

I.  More  than  twenty-five  thousand  species  of  ve- 
getables are  now  known  to  the  botanists;  and  of  this 
number  a  very  large  proportion  is  furnished  with  leaves. 
None  of  the  trees,  strictly  so  called,  are  destitute  of  these 
beautiful  parts.  Some  vegetables,  however,  are  leaf- 
less. Such  are  the  two  species  of  Ephedra*,  or  Shrub- 
by Horse-tail,  and  the  great  family  of  Fungous  plants. 
These  last  have  many  of  the  habitudes  of  animals,  and 

*  Ephedra  distachva,  and  Ephedra  monnstachya.  The  first  species  is  a  na- 
•".v«  L.f  the  sou'h  of  France,  and  of  Spain :  the  buer  n  a  native  of  Siberia. 


62  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

even  the  circumstance  of  their  being  leafless  vegetables 
is  one  in  the  series  of  their  relations  to  that  vast  empire 
of  organized  bodies. 

2.   The  leaves  of  certain  vegetables  acquire  a  very 
great  size.   It  is  curious,  too,  to  remark,  that  it  is  only  in 
the  hot  or  hottest  portions  of  the  globe,  that  we  find  the 
largest  leaves.    I  believe  that  the  cold  climates,  and  even 
those  which  are  moderately  warm,  do  not  furnish  us 
with  any  instances  of  very  large-leaved  trees.     It  does 
seem,  that  the  magnitude  of  the  leaves  of  certain  species 
of  trees,  increases  as  we  approach  the  line*.    In  the  cold 
climates,  we  find  no  Palms,  with  leaves  so  large  as  to  be 
capable  of  sheltering  whole  families  from  the  inclemency 
of  the  weatherf.     Why  should  we  doubt  (when  a  vast 
system  of  benevolence  is  so  conspicuous  in  this  earth), 
that  in  giving  to  the  vegetables  of  hot  climates  such  ca- 
pacious leaves,  the  Author  of  the  universe  had  consult- 
ed the  health,  the  comforts,  and  the  pleasures  of  the  hu- 
man inhabitants,  destined  to  live  beneath  the  scorching 
rays  of  the  sun?  But  man  is  not  the  only  animal  that  de- 
rives advantages  from  the  large-spreading  leaves  of  tro- 
pical trees.  The  birds  and  many  other  animals  are  equal- 
ly benefitted.    Destitute  of  this  shelter,  many  species 
would  be  nearly  incapable  of  subsisting  in  the  countries 
in  which  they  reside;  and,  in  particular,  they  would  be 
incapable  (unless  their  instinctive  operations  were  es- 
sentially varied)  of  rearing  their  young. 

*  The  amiable  Bernardin  De  Saint  Pierre. 

■\  One  of  the  largest  leaves  that  are  known  to  us  is  fhat  of  the  Talipot  (Corvpha 
umbraculifera?),  a  native  of  Ceylon.  Robert  Knox  assures  us,  that  a  single  leaf  is 
capable  of  covering  from  fifteen  to  twenty  persons.  He  considers  the  Talipot  as 
one  of  the  greatest  blessings  that  Providence  has  bestowed  upon  the  inhabitants 
of  a  country,  which  is  parched  by  the  sun,  and  inundated  by  the  rains,  for  six 
month*  in  the  vear. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  S3 

3.  The  precise  time  of  the  year  and  month  in  which 
any  given  species  of  vegetable  unfolds  its  first  leaves  is 
denominated,  by  Linneeus,  Frondescentia*.  To  this 
subject,  the  Swedish  naturalist  has  paid  much  attention. 
He  made  a  great  number  of  observations,  in  eighteen  dif- 
ferent provinces  of  his  native  country,  situated  between 
the  sixtieth  and  seventieth  degree  of  north  latitude, 
in  the  years  1750,  1751,  and  1752.  It  was  his  object 
to  discover,  which  species  of  trees  begin  to  open  their 
buds,  and  unfold  their  leaves,  at  the  most  proper  time  for 
the  sowing  of  Barley.  The  result  of  his  inquiries  was, 
that  the  Birch-tree  (Betula  Alnus)  gave  the  most  proper 
indication  for  this  purpose.  He  justly  imagined,  that  in 
every  province  of  Europe,  there  exist  other  trees,  which 
will,  in  like  manner,  indicate  the  proper  time  for  sowing 
grains  of  different  kinds,  and  also  esculent  herbs.  This 
is,  certainly,  a  subject  worthy  of  the  attention  of  natu- 
ralists, whose  inquiries  are  directed  to  utility.  Much 
important  information  would  result  from  an  extensive 
investigation  of  the  subject.  The  agricultural  rules  of 
savage  nations  are  frequently  founded, in  a  great  measure, 
upon  the  frondescence,  together  with  the  time  of  flow- 
ering, of  different  vegetables,  indigenous  in  their  coun- 
tries. Thus,  the  Indians,  in  different  parts  of  North* 
America,  are  of  opinion,  that  the  best  time  for  planting 
the  Maize,  or  Indian-corn,  is  when  the  leaves  of  the 
White-Oak  f  first  make  their  appearance;  or  rather,  as> 
they  express  it,  when  the  leaves  of  this  common  tree 
are  of  the  size  of  a  ^squirrel's  ears.     I  shall  have  occa- 

*  From  Frons,  a  leaf. 

t  Quercus  alba.. 

|  Sciurus  cinereus,  the  most  common  species  of  Squirrel  m  North- America 


64  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

sion  to  touch  again  on  this  subject,  when  treating  of 
the  Calendariam  Flora^  or  Calender  of  Flora*. 

4.  By  the  term  Defoliauo\,  or  Defoliation,  Lin- 
naeus means  the  season  of  the  year  at  which  the  vege- 
tables of  any  particular  country  shed  their  leaves.  Thus, 
this  term  is  directly  opposed  to  that  of  frondescentia. 
With  respect  to  the  defoliation  of  vegetables,  it  is  pro- 
per to  observe,  that  the  same  species  does  not  always 
drop  its  leaves  at  the  same  time,  even  in  the  same  dis- 
trict of  a  country;  but,  in  particular,  that  the  same 
species  sheds  its  leaves  at  very  different  periods,  in  dif- 
ferent countries.  In  both  instances,  the  difference  of 
the  time  of  defoliation  seems  to  depend,  principally, 
upon  a  difference  of  season,  or  of  climate.  Extreme 
heat  and  extreme  cold  are  both  observed  to  be  favour- 
able to  the  fall  of  the  leaf.  In  the  hot  summers,  the 
leaves  of  many  plants  lose  their  verdure,  and  fall  a  full 
month  earlier  than  they  do  in  milder  seasons. 

5.  The  fall  of  the  leaf  is  almost  always  preceded  by  a 
very  essential  change  in  its  colour.  Yellow,  red,  and 
brown  are  the  most  common  colours  of  the  dying  leaf. 
About  the  close  of  September  (sooner  or  later  according 
to  the  season), the  forest-trees  in  Pennsylvania,  and  other 
middle  parts  of  the  United-States,  begin  to  lose  their 
verdure.  The  leaves  assume  new  colours,  particularly 
yellow  and  red,  or  crimson.  Nothing  can  be  more  pic- 
turesque than  an  American  forest,  at  this  season.  The 
beauties  of  the  scenery  will  be  described  by  some  future 

•   See  Part  II. 

+  From  de,  ?.rd  Folium,  a  leaf. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  C5 

Thompson;  or  exhibited  on  canvass  by  the  pencil  of  an 
American  Salvator  Rosa.  It  will  be  sufficient  for  me  to 
observe,  that  the  leaves  of  almost  all  the  species  of  Jug- 
Ian  s  (Walnuts  and  Hickery)  and  Maple, assume  different 
shades  of  yellow;  whilst  those  of  Nyssa  integrifolia,  call- 
ed Gum,  the  Laurus  Sassafras,  the  Cornus  florida,  or 
Dogwood,  and  others,  are  clothed  in  a  livery  of  crimson, 
or  red. 

6.  Some  vegetables  do  not  drop  their  leaves  at  all, 
during  the  whole  year.  Their  verdure  is  not,  in  the 
least,  injured  by  the  changes  of  the  weather.  The 
Fir,  the  Juniper,  the  Yew,  the  Cypress,  the  Kalmia?, 
and  many  others,  belong  to  this  class  of  Evergreens,  as 
they  are  very  emphatically  called.  In  general,  the  leaves 
of  the  evergreens  are  harder  and  less  succulent  than 
those  of  deciduous  vegetables.  It  is  observable,  also,  that 
their  surfaces  are  covered  by  a  very  thin,  parchment- 
like cortex,  or  bark.  It  is  found,  that  they  perspire 
less  than  the  leaves  of  deciduous  vegetables.  Some 
writers  have,  accordingly,  conjectured,  that  the  sem- 
pervirent  quality  of  these  vegetables  is  owing  to  the 
smallness  of  their  perspiration.  Dr.  Arbuthnot  imagin- 
ed, that  the  verdurous  quality  was  owing  to  the  leaves 
containing  more  juices  than  can  be  exhaled  by  the  sun. 
The  celebrated  Dr.  Grew  supposed,  that  a  thick  epi- 
dermis, dense  cellular  substance,  and  few  trachea?, 
or  spiral-vessels,  are  the  true  cause  of  the  perpe- 
tual verdure  of  these  vegetables.  Duhamel  thought, 
that  this  state  of  the  vegetable  depended  upon  a  hard 
knot,  at  the  base  of  the  leaves.  Others,  again,  have 
supposed,  that  a  gummy  matter,  residing  within  the  ve- 
getables, is  the  cause  of  the  lasting  verdure.  But  if  this 
were  the  case,  we  should  find,that  Cherry-trees,  Plumb- 
ic 


66  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

trees,  Peach-trees,  and  other  vegetables  that  abound  in 
gum,  would  be  evergreens  also.  Perhaps,  none  of 
these  explanations  of  the  cause  of  the  evergreen  quali- 
ty of  leaves  is  wholly  satisfactory.  The  circumstance 
seems  principally  referrible  to  climate.  The  same 
species  is  a  perdifoil,  or  drops  its  leaves,  in  one  cli- 
mate, and  preserves  them  in  another.  Thus,  the 
Passion-flower*  of  America,  and  the  Jasmine  of  Ma- 
labarf ,  are  evergreens  in  their  native  climates,  but 
become  perdifoils  when  they  are  transplanted  into  Bri- 
tain, and  other  northern  parts  of  Europe.  On  the  other 
hand,  many  of  the  perdifoils  of  cold  climates,  when  trans- 
plantedto  warmer  climates,  become  evergreens.  Thus, 
the  Quince-tree  is  a  perdifoil  in  northern  countries,  but 
becomes  an  evergreen  when  transplanted  to  the  south 
of  France,  the  island  of  Minorca,  and  other  southern  cli- 
mates. I  am  assured,  that  the  Currant-bushes  which 
were  sent  from  Britain,  where  they  are  deciduous,  to  the 
Island  of  St.  Hellena,  became,  in  a  short  time,  ever- 
greens, but  ceased  to  bear  fruit.  Professor  Thun- 
berg  informs  us,  that  the  Oak  (Quercus  Robur),  the 
White  Poplar  (Populus  alba),  and  other  trees  which 
were  imported  from  Europe  to  the  Cape  of  Good- 
Hope,  "  shed  their  leaves  in  the  winter,  as  they  do 
M  in  their  native  places,  whereas  the  African  trees 
"  do  not  part  with  theirs.  It  is  not  long,  however, 
"  (continues  our  author),  before  they  recover  their 
"  leaves  again.  This  circumstance  is  singular  enough: 
"  first,  because  the  cold  here  (at  the  Cape  of  Good-Hope) 
"  in  winter  is  not  more  severe  than  it  is  in  Sweden  in 
"the  autumn;  and  in  the  second  place,  because  they 

*  Passiflora  coerulea. 

t  Jasminum  grandiflorum. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  67 

"  shed  their  leaves  to  the  southward  of  the  equator  at 
"  the  very  time  that  they  put  them  forth  to  the  north- 
"  ward  of  it*." 

7.  Mr.  Bruce  informs  us,  that  all  the  leaves  of  the 
trees  in  Abyssinia,  are  very  highly  varnished,  and  of  a 
tough,  leather-like  texture,  which  enables  them  to  sup- 
port the  constant  and  violent  rains,  under  which  these 
trees  are  producedf.  This  is  a  wise  provision  of  na- 
ture. But  in  what,  the  highest  or  the  lowest  object,  is 
not  thy  wisdom,  Nature,  conspicuous  ? 

§.    III. 

I  am  now  to  speak  of  the  Fulcra,  the  third  general 
part  of  the  herb  mentioned  by  Linnaeus. 

The  fulcra,  or  fulcres,are  definedby  the  Swedish  na~ 
turalist  to  be  helps  of  the  plant,  for  its  more  commodi- 
ous sustentation,  or  support.  Of  these  fulcres,  Linnaeus, 
at  different  times,  enumerated  a  very  different  number. 
In  the  Fundamenta  Botanica,  published  in  1736,  they 
were  six  in  number,  and  stood  in  the  following  order, 
viz.  Bractea,  Cirrhus,  Spina,  Aculeus,  Stipirfa,  and 
Glandula.  In  a  subsequent  edition  of  the  same  work, 
Linnaeus  enumerated  nine  fulcres,  the  three  additional 
to  those  just  mentioned,  being  the  Scapus,  the  Petiolus, 
and  the  Pedunculus,  which  our  author  had  formerly  con- 
sidered as  species  of  trunks.  In  his  immortal  work,  the 
Philosophia  Botanic  a,  published  in  1750,  we  find  but 


*  Travels  in  Europe,  Africa,  and  Asia,  &.c.  Vol.  I,  p.  104.  English  trans- 
lation. London:  1796. 

t  Travels,  &c.  Appendix,  p.  151, 152.  Quarto  edition. 


68  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

seven  species  enumerated:  viz.  Stipula,  Brae  tea,  Spi- 
na, Aculeus,  Cirrhus,  Glandula,  and  Pilus.  In  the 
Termini  Botanici,  published  in  the  Amoenitates  Aca-' 
demise*,  by  John  Elmgren,  one  of  the  pupils  of  the 
great  naturalist,  and  in  the  Delineatio  Plants,  which  is 
prefixed  to  the  second  volume  of  the  Sy sterna  Nature, 
the  fulcres  were  to  experience  one  more  revolution.  In 
these  works,  the  terms  Aculeus  and  Spina  give  way  to 
the  general  term  of  Anna;  and  Pilus  is  supplanted  by 
the  less  delicate,  and  less  determinate,  term  Pubes,  by 
which  Linnaeus  means  every  species  of  pubescence,  or 
hairy  appearance,  on  the  surface  of  plants.  Glandula  also 
is  swallowed  up  in  Pubes,  and  the  partial  trunks,  Petio- 
lus  and  Pedunculus,  are  again  to  appear  among  the 
fulcres.  The  list  now  stood  as  follows,  viz.  Petiolus, 
Stipula,  Cirrhus,  Pubes,  Anna,  Bracteee,  Peduncu- 
lus]. 

I  find  it  not  a  little  difficult  to  satisfy  my  mind, 
as  to  the  parts  of  the  plant  which  ought  to  be  introdu- 
ced under  this  general  head  of  fulcres.  I  do  not  think 
the  science  of  Botany  would  loose  much  of  its  value,  by 

*  Vol.  VI.  Disserfatio  cxtti. 

f  Perhaps,  no  man  of  real  celebrity  in  science  was  so  much  in  the  habit  of 
making  essential  alterations,  in  the  different  editions  of  his  works,  as  Linnxus 
was.  Mr.  Pennant,  speaking  of  the  Swedish  naturalist's  arrangement  of  the 
mammalia  has,  with  delicate  severity,  used  the  following  words :  "  The  variations 
"  in  his  different  systems  may  have  arisen  from  the  new  and  continual  discoveries 
*•  that  are  made  in  the  animal  kingdom  ,•  from  his  sincere  intention  of  giving  his 
"  systems  additional  improvements ;  and  perhaps  from  a  failing  (unknown,  Indeed, 
"  to  many  of  his  accusers),  a  diffidence  in  the  abilities  he  had  exerted  in  his  prior 
•'  performances.  Hut  it  must  be  allowed,  that  the  naturalist  ran  too  great  a  hazard 
"  in  imitating  his  present  guise  ;  for  in  another  year  he  might  put  on  a  new  form, 
"  and  have  left  the  complying  philosopher  amazed  at  the  metamorphosis." 

History  (>f  Quadrupeds.    Preface. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  69 

the  entire  abolition  of  the  term.  Certain  it  is,  that 
several  of  the  articles  enumerated  by  Linnaeus  cannot, 
with  any  degree  of  propriety,  be  considered  as  props, 
for  the  more  commodious  sustentation  of  the  plant. 
Upon  what  principle,  can  we  denominate  the  spina,  the 
aculeus,  the  glandula,  and  the  pilus,  species  of  props  ? 
Perhaps,  bractea  and  stipula  have  not  a  much  higher 
claim  to  this  title.  But  I  dare  not  think  of  abolishing  a 
term,  sanctioned  by  the  authority  of  so  many  able  bota- 
nists; though  one*  of  the  most  distinguished  of  them 
has  confessed,  that  the  term  is  rather  "  forced."  I  shall 
treat,  under  the  head  of  fulcres,  of  the  following  parts  of 
the  plant:  viz.  1.  Petiolus.  2.  Pedunculus.  3.  Cirrus. 
4.  Stipula.  5.  Bractea.  6.  Spina.  7.  Aculeus.  8.  Glan- 
dula.  9.  Pilus. 

I.  The  Petiolusf,  or  Petiole,  called  also  the  Leaf- 
stalk, or  Foot- stalk,  is  a  fulcre  supporting  the  leaf.  I 
have  had  frequent  occasion  to  make  mention  of  this  part, 
in  the  preceding  pages.  I  have  observed,  that  Linnaeus, 
at  different  times,  considered  it  as  a  species  of  trunk. 
But  if  the  name  fulcre  must  be  retained,  I  think  we  may 
be  glad  to  have  an  opportunity  of  referring  to  this  head, 
both  the  petiole  and  peduncle.  I  am  aware,  that  this  is 
not  the  language  of  all  botanists.  Thus,  Dr.  Milne  is  of 
opinion,  that  neither  the  petiole  nor  the  peduncle  have 
been,  with  propriety,  enumerated  among  the  fulcres, 
"  with  which  (says  this  often  judicious  writer)  they 
"  have  no  connection" J. 

*  Dr.  James  Edward  Smith. 

t  By  the  Roman  writers,  the  term  petiolus  was  employed  to  denote  the  foet- 
stallc  of  the  fruit.    In  this  sense,  it  is  used  by  Columella. 

\  A  Botanical  Dictionary,  &c.  article  Fulcra. 


70  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

In  the  generality  of  plants,  the  petiole  is  nearly  of 
the  same  colour  as  the  leaf,  to  which  it  belongs.  Indeed, 
it  appears  to  be  nothing  but  the  leaf  in  a  compressed 
state.  The  evolution  of  the  leaf  from  the  petiole  is  very 
distinctly  observed  in  the  Sallisburia  adiantifolia,  or 
Gingko*.  The  petiole  of  many  plants  is  nearly  cylindri- 
cal :  it  is,  however,  more  commonly  somewhat  com- 
pressed, its  upper  surface,  at  least,  being  flatted;  the 
under  round  or  convex.  *'  By  this  configuration,  the 
u  footstalks  of  compound  leaves  are  generally,  with  ac- 
"  curacy,  distinguished  from  the  young  branches,  with 
"  which  beginners  are  very  apt  to  confound  themf." 

In  the  greater  number  of  vegetables,  the  leaves  and 
the  fructification  are  supported  by  distinct  footstalks. 
In  a  few  plants,  however,  the  same  footstalk  supports 
both  the  leaf  and  the  flower,  or  the  fruit.  This  is  the 
case  in  Turnera  ulmifolia,  and  in  Hibiscus  Moscheutos, 
or  Syrian  Mallow. 

The  petiole  sometimes  supplies  us  with  very  ele- 
gant marks  for  discriminating  the  different  species  of  a 
genus.  The  petiolus  alatus,  or  winged  petiole,  is  a  spe- 
cies of  leaf-foot-stalk,  which  has  a  thin  membrane  or 
border,  on  each  side  of  it.  This  little  character  distin- 
guishes the  Orange  (Citrus  Aurantium),  from  the  Le- 
mon (Citrus  Medica).  In  the  latter  species,the  petiole  is 
linear,  that  is  nearly  of  the  same  breadth  its  whole 
length.    This  is  the  pe tiolus  linearis  of  Linnaeus. 

*  The  Maiden-hair-tree,  a  native  of  Japan. 
+  Milne. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  71 

•2.  The  Pedunculus*,  or  Peduncle,  is  a  partial  stem, 
or  trunk,  which  supports  the  fructification,  without  the 
leaves.  I  think  it  most  proper  to  treat  of  it,  in  this  place, 
among  the  number  of  fulcres.  Professor  Martyn  pro- 
perly calls  it  "  the  fulcre  of  the  fructification." 

Various  species  or  varieties  of  the  peduncle  are 
enumerated  by  Linnaeus.  The  principal  of  them  are 
nowr  to  be  mentioned. 

a.  With  respect  to  its  place  of  origin,  a  peduncle 
is,  1.  radicalism  a  root  peduncle;  proceeding  immediately 
from  the  root.  2.  caulinus,  a  stem  peduncle;  proceeding 
from  the  stem.  3.  rameus,  a  branch  peduncle;  proceed- 
ing from  a  branch.  4.  petiolaris,  petiolary;  proceeding 
from  the  petiole.  5.  cirrhiferus,  or  tendril  bearing.  6. 
terminalis,  terminating,  or  proceeding  from  the  top  of 
the  stem.  7.  axillaris,  axillary,  proceeding  from  the 
axil,  or  angle,  which  is  made  by  the  leaf  and  the  stem, 
or  the  branch  and  stem.  8.  oppositifolins,  opposite  to  a 
leaf.  9.  lateriflorus,  having  the  flower  on  the  side  of  it. 
10.  interfoliaceus,  among  the  leaves:  perhaps,  intrafo- 
liaceus,  within  the  leaf.  11.  extrafoliaceus,  without,  or 
on  the  outside  of  the  leaf.  12.  suprafoliaceus;  inserted 
into  the  stem,  higher  than  the  leaf,  or  than  its  petiole. 

b.  With  respect  to  their  situation,  peduncles  may 
be,  1.  oppositi,  opposite  to  each  other,  or,  2.  alterni, 
alternate.  3.  spar  si,  scattered,  without  any  regular 
order.  4.  verticillati,  in  whorls. 


*  Mr.  Ray,  and  other  of  the  older  botanists  use  Pediculus,  instead  of  Pedun- 
culus. The  former  is,  certainly,  the  more  classical  name.  It  is  sanctioned  by 
Plmy,  Ac  naturalist,  and  other  good  writers. 


72  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

c.  With  respect  to  their  number,  peduncles  may 
be,  1.  solitarily  solitary,  or  single.  2.  geminati, double, 
two  together,  or  in  pairs. 

In  the  umbellula,  umbellule,  or  rundlet,  of  which 
particular  mention  is  afterwards  to  be  made,  several  equal 
peduncles  proceed  or  diverge  from  the  same  centre,  or 
point. 

The  peduncle,  according  to  the  number  of  flowers 
which  it  bears,  is  denominated,  1.  uniflorus.  2.  biflorus. 
3.  triflorus,  &c.  4.  multiflorus:  that  is,  one,  two,  three- 
flowered,  and  many-flowered. 

d.  With  respect  to  its  direction,  a  peduncle  may  be, 
1.  appressus,  pressed  close  to  the  stem.  2.  e rectus, 
upright.  3.  patens,  spreading.  4.  cernuus,  drooping,  or 
pointing  to  the  ground.  5.  resupinatus,  upside  down. 
6.  declinatus,  bowed,  or  curved  downwards.  7.  nutans, 
nodding,  or  curved  downwards,  more  so  than  in  the  last 
mentioned,  but  less  so  than  in  the  drooping  peduncle. 
8..  adscendens,  rising  gradually.  9.flaccidus,  weak  or 
feeble,  bending  with  the  weight  of  the  flower,  which  it 
supports.  10.  pendulus,  loose,  tending  downward  with 
the  leaf.  11.  strictus,  stiff  and  straight.  12.  flex uosus, 
bending  readily,  in  different  directions.  13.  r etr of r actus, 
bent  backwards,  as  if  broken. 

e.  With  respect  to  its  measure,  a  peduncle  is,  1. 
brevis,  short.  2.  brcvissimus,  very  short.  3.  longus, 
long.  4.  lofigissimus,  very  long. 

f.  With  respect  to  its  structure,  a  peduncle  is,  1. 
teres,  round,  cylindrical,  or  perhaps  rather  columnar.  2. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  73 

triqueter,  three-sided.  3.  tetragonus,  four-cornered.  4. 
filiformis,  like  a  thread;  or  of  the  same  thickness  in  all 
its  parts.  5.  attenuatus,  tapering  gradually  towards  the 
top.  6.  incrassatus,  growing  gradually  thicker  towards 
the  top.  7.  clavatus,  club-shaped;  or  thick  at  the  end. 
8.  nudus,  naked.  9.  squarnosus,  scaly.  10.  foliatus, 
leafy.  11.  bracteatus,  furnished  with  bractese,  or  brac- 
tes.  \2.geniculatus,  kneed,  or  bent  at  the  joints;  and, 
13.  articulatus,  jointed. 

3.  The  Cirrus*,  or  Tendril,  called  also  Clasper,  is  a 
fine  spiral  string,  or  fibre,  proceeding  from  different 
parts  of  the  plant,  and  by  means  of  which  it  fastens  itself 
to  some  other  plant  or  body.  The  term  cirrus  is  syno- 
nimous  to  the  terms  Capreolus,  Clavicula,  and  Viticu- 
lus  of  the  older  botanists. 

Various  species  of  tendrils  are  mentioned  by  Lin- 
najus.  These  I  shall  notice  under  two  heads:  first,  ac- 
cording to  their  place  of  origin,  or  situation:  secondly, 
according  to  their  form,  or  the  number  of  leaves  which 
they  support. 

I.  To  the  first  head,  we  refer  the  following  :  viz.  1. 
cirrus  axillaris,  when  the  tendril  proceeds  from  the 
axil,  or  angle  formed  by  a  branch  with  the  stem,  or  by  a 
leaf  with  a  branch.  2.  cirrus  foliar  is, procedmg  from  the 
leaf;  as  in  the  Pisum  Ochrus,  or  Winged- Pea.  3.  cirrus 


*  Linnatus  writes  the  word  Cirrhus,  which  is  less  proper,  not  sanctioned, 
as  far  as  I  know,  by  any  good  or  classical  writer.  Martial,  Phaedrus,  Pliny,  &c 
write  it  cirrus.  The  Latin  word  signifies  a  tuft,  or  lock  of  hair  curled,  a  curl  or 
frizzle,  &c.  The  Greek  original  of  the  word  is  so  doubtful,  that  I  shall  not  notice 
the  discordant  opinions  of  authors  on  the  subject. 
•  L 


74  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

petiolaris,  proceeding  from  the  petiole,  or  footstalk  of 
the  leaf.  4.  cirrus  peduncularis,  from  the  peduncle. 

2.  To  the  second  head  belong  the  following,  viz.  1. 
cirrus  simplex,  a  simple  or  undivided  tendril.  2.  cirrus 
irijidus,  a  three-cleft  tendril;  a  tendril  divided  into  three 
parts.  3.  cirrus  multijidus,  many-cleft,  or  often  divided. 
4.  cirrus  dipbyllus,  a  two-leaved  tendril ;  furnished 
with  two  leaves.  5.  cirrus  tetrapbyllus,  a  four-leaved 
tendril;  haying  four  leaves.  6.  cirrus  poly phyllus,  a 
many-leaved  tendril;  having  many  leaves.  7.  cirrus  con- 
volutus,  a  convoluted  tendril;  twisted  into  rings,  or  spi- 
rals. 8.  cirrus  rcvolutus,  arevolute  tendril;  when  a  spire 
of  the  screw  having  made  half  a  revolution,  turns  back 
in  a  contrary  direction*. 

Tendrils  are  a  very  important  appendage  to  many 
vegetables.  The  Solanum  Dulcamara,  Bignonia  radi- 
cans,  called  Trumpet-flower,  and  some  species  of  He- 
dera,  or  Ivy,  emit  tendrils,  which  serve  the  place  of  roots, 
planting  themselves  into  the  bark  of  trees,  or  in  the  walls 
of  buildings.  In  the  Cucumber,  and  other  cucurbitaceous 
plants,  the  tendrils  serve  both  for  sustentation,  and  for  * 
shade.  By  means  of  these  parts,  the  trunks  of  the  plants 
are  bound,  as  it  were,  together,  and  prevented  from  be- 
ing atthe  sport  of  the  winds.  "The  same  claspers  serve 
"  likewise  for  shade:  so  that  a  natural  arbour  is  formed 
"  by  the  branches  of  the  Cucumber,  in  the  same  man- 
"  ner  as  an  artificial  one  is  made  by  tangling  together 
"  the  twigs  of  trees;  for  the  branches,  by  the  linking  of 
li  their  claspers,  being  couched'  together,  the    tender 


*  For  a  representation  of  the  cirrus,  or  tendril,  sec  the  plate  of  Passiflora 
incarnata,  in  this  work.  ^ 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  75 

u  fruits  lie  under  the  umbrage  of  a  bower,  made  of  their 
4i  own  leaves*." 

Many  of  the  papilionaceous  or  pea-blossom  plants 
have  twining  tendrils,  which  wind  to  the  right  and  back 
again. 

Many  extensive  families  of  plants  are  entirely  des- 
titute of  tendrils. 

Philips  has  given  a  kind  of  instinctive  perception  to 
some  of  the  tendril-vegetables,  as  appears  from  the  fol- 
lowing lines  in  his  poem,  entitled  Cyder. 

"  The  Gourd, 


"  And  thirsty  Cucumber,  when  they  perceive 

"  Th'  approaching  Olive,  with  resentment  fly 

"  Her  fatty  fibres,  and  with  Tendrils  creep 

"  Diverse,  detesting  contact." — Book  1. 1.  257 — 261. 

I  shall  afterwardsf  have  occasion  to  observe,  that 
it  is  among  some  of  the  vegetables  that  are  furnished 
with  tendrils,  that  we  discover  the  most  remarkable  in- 
stances  of  that  property,  which  has  been  called  the  per- 
ceptivity, or  instinctive  intelligence,  of  plants. 

4.  The  StipulaJ,  or  Stipule,  is  defined  by  Linnaeus  to 
be  a  scale,  or  small  leaf,  situated  on  each  side  of  the 
base  of  the  petiole  and  peduncle,  or  footstalks  of  the 
leaves  and  flowers,  at  their  first  appearance,  and  are  de- 
signed for  the  purpose  of  sustentation,  or  support.  Lin- 

# 

*  Milne.  t  See  Parr  II. 

\  Stipula,  the  diminutive  of  Stipa,  tow  ;  originally  froni  ff]vir»,  which  also 
wignifies  tow. 


76  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

nous's  pupil,  Elmgren,  whose  paper  I  have  already 
referred  to,  restricts  the  term  stipule  to  the  petiole  only. 

The  celebrated  Malpighi,  who  may  justly  be  stiled 
one  of  the  fathers  of  vegetable  physiology,  was,I  believe, 
the  first  person  who  gave  to  the  public  any  observa- 
tions concerning  the  number,  the  figure,  and  the  situa- 
tion of  this  part  of  the  plant.  Linnzeus,  borrowing  the 
hint,  has  greatly  improved  upon  the  observations  of  the 
illustrious  Italian  naturalist.  In  particular, he  has  made 
much  important  use  of  the  stipule  in  discriminating  the 
different  species  of  a  genus,  or  family  of  plants. 

Stipules  are  very  conspicuous  in  the  Tamarind, 
the  Rose,  the  Cassia,  the  Melianthus',  or  Honey-flower, 
the  Apricot,  the  Peach,  the  Bird-Cherry,  the  Magnolia, 
and  many  species  of  Pea-bloom  flowers,  &c.  Perhaps, 
in  no  plant  are  they  more  beautifully  conspicuous  than 
in  the  Liriodendr.on,  or  Tulip-tree.  In  this  and  in  some 
other  vegetables,  stipules  may,  with  some  propriety,  be 
said  to  be  fulcrcs,  or  support?.  They  enclose,  protect, 
and  cherish  the  young  leaves,  until  they  have  acquired 
a  larger  growth,  and  greater  strength.  But,  in  many 
plants,  the  stipules  appear  to  have  nothing  to  do  in  the 
business  of  giving  support. 

In  the  greater  number  of  plants,  that  are  furnished 
with  stipule,  there  are  two  of  these  scales  or  leaves,  at- 
tached to  the  stem,  one  on  each  side  of  the  footstalk. 
These  are,  the  stipultz ^geminte ,  or  stipules  in  pairs.  In 
the  African  Melianthus,  and  in  the  Kuscus,  or  butcher's 
broom,  there  is  only  a  single  stipule, 'which  in  the  first 
mentioned  plant  is  placed  on  the  inside,  and  in  the  latter 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  77 

on  the  outside,  of  the  stalk.  Sueh  stipules  arc  called  by 
Linnaeus,  solitarice,  solitary.  In  some  plants,  the  sti- 
pules grow  upon,  or  are  inserted  into,  the  sides.  These 
are  the  stipulce  later  ales, or  lateral  stipules.  Stipule  ex- 
trafoliacete,  or  extrafoliaceous  stipules,  are  those  which 
grow  on  the  outside  of  the  leaves,  or  below  them;  as  in 
Betula,  Tilia,  and  many  of  the  Diadelphous,  or  Pea- 
bloom*flowers.  This  term  is  opposed  to  stipule  intra- 
foliacece,  or  intrafoliaceous  stipules;  stipules  that  grow 
above,  or  within  the  leaves.  Stipulce  oppositifoliae,  or 
oppositifolious  stipules,  are  such  as  are  placed  opposite 
to  the  leaf. 

In  point  of  duration,  some  stipules  fall  off  before 
the  leaves.  These  are  the,  1.  stipulce  caducce,  or  cadu- 
cous stipules.  We  have  examples  of  them  in  the  com- 
mon Cherry-tree,  the  Almond,  the  Poplar,  the  Elm,  the 
Oak,  the  Beech,  the  Horn-Beam,  the  Birch,  the  Alder, 
the  Fig,  the  Mulberry,  and  many  others.  Other  stipules 
are  deciduous:  these  Linnaeus  denominates,  2;  stipulce 
deciduce,  or  deciduous  stipules:  they  are  those  which  fall 
off  with  the  flower.  3.  stipulce persistentcs,  or  permanent 
stipules,  are  those  which  continue  until  the  fall  of  the 
leaves;  as  in  the  Rose,  the  Rasberry,  the  Cinquefoil,  the 
Tormentil,  the  Avens,  the  Pea-bloom-flowers,  and 
many  others. 

Ti^e  terms  sessile,  adnatc,  decurrent,  sheathing,  su- 
bulate, lanceolate,  sagittate,  lunate,  erect,  spreading,  re- 
flex, very  entire,  serrate,  ciliatc,  toothed,  cleft,  very 
short,  middling  short,  long,  &c.  &c.  are  applied  to  sti- 
pules, as  well  as  to  leaves.  For  the  explanation  of  these 
various  terms,  I  must  refer  the  reader  to  the  terminology 
of  leaves,  in  the  preceding  pages. 


78  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

5.  The  Bractea*,  Bracte,  or  Floral-  leaf,  is  a  leaf  which, 
in  general,  differs  from  the  true  leaves  both  in  shape  and 
in  colour,  and  is  commonly  situated  on  the  peduncle, 
and  often  so  near  to  the  corolla  as  to  be  mistaken  for  the 
calyx.  This  is  the  case  in  Hellebore,  Nigella,  Bartsia, 
Peganum,  and  others. 

The  following,  among  other  plants,  furnish  us  with 
the  most  remarkable  instances  of  the  bracte,  viz.  the 
Tilia,  or  Lime-tree,  Melampyrum,  or  Cow- wheat,  Bart- 
sia coccineaf ,  some  species  of  Fumaria,  or  Fumitory, 
the  Monarda  didyma,  or  Oswego-tea,  Polygala,  or 
Milk-wort,  Ononis,  or  Rest-harrow,  Anthyllis,  or  La- 
dy's finger,  Glycine  frutescens,  or  Carolina  Kidney- 
bean-tree,  &c.  &c. 

In  general,  the  bracte  is  of  the  same  duration  as 
the  common  or  true  leaves  of  the  plant.  This  circum- 
stance is  worthy  of  attention,  as  it  will,  in  some  instan- 
ces, enable  us  to  distinguish  the  bracte  from  the  peri- 
anth, or  flower- cup,  which  last  almost  always  withers 
when  the  fruit  has  ripened,  if  not,  indeed,  before. 

By  not  attending  to  this  observation,  the  young  or 
inexperienced  botanist  may  very  readily  commit  essen- 
tial mistakes,  in  ascertaining  the  genera  of  certain  plants; 


*  Bractea,  in  Latin,  has  the  following  significations,  viz.  a  thin  leaf,  or  plate 
of  gold,  silver,  or  any  other  metal;  a  tinsel,  a  spangle,  a  chip  or  thin  piece  of 
wood  ;  a  weather-cock  upon  the  summit  of  steeples,  turrets,  Sec.  Hence  it  appears, 
that  Linnxus  has  not  discovered  much  taste  in  applying  this  name  to  the  floral 
leaf.  With  respect  to  the  English  word,  bracte,  I  should  substitute  in  its  place,  flo- 
ral-leaves, were  it  not  that  this  term  is  frequently  employed  by  Linnams,  to  denote 
leaves  which  are  situated  near  the  flower,  when  they  differ  from  the  other  leaves, 
though  they  are  not,  strictly  speaking,  bractes. 

f  See  Plate  IV. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  79 

such  as  Hellebore,  Fennel-flower,  Passion-flower,  and 
others,  which  are  furnished  with  bractes,but  are  destitute 
of  calyx :  at  least  according  to  the  ideas  of  Linnaeus  res- 
pecting the  calyx ;  for  I  shall  afterwards  have  occasion 
to  observe,  that  Jussieu,  Adanson,  and  other  eminent 
botanists,  often  give  the  name  of  calyx,  to  that  part  which 
Linnaeus  calls  the  corolla,  or  petals. 

a.  Bractes  are  either,  1.  virides,  green,  or,  2. 
coloratcs,  coloured.  They  are  green  in  Hypoxis  erecta, 
and  beautifully  coloured  in  Bartsia  coccinea*. 

b.  In  point  of  duration,  they  are  either,  1.  deciduce^ 
deciduous.  2.  cadncce, caducous.  5.  persistentes,  perma- 
nent.  These  terms  have  already  been  explained. 

c.  In  point  of  number,  bractes  are  either,  1.  unay 
one.  2.  dua,  two.  3.  plures,  more  than  two.  The  fol- 
lowing, among  other  plants,  have,  in  general,  but  one 
bracte:  viz.  Chondrillajuncea,Aristolochia Pistolochia, 
andEricaDabceciu.  The  following  plants  have  two  brac- 
tes: viz.  Campanula  alpina,  Commelina  Zanonia,  Rosa 
canina,  Royena  villosa,  Ruellia  ringens,  Cineraria  sibi- 
rica,  and  Hypoxis  erectaf.  Erica  calycina,  and  Atrac- 
tylis  cancellata  have  three  bractes.  Corymbium  scab- 
rum  has  four  or  five.  Cunila  pulegioides,  Stipa  spinifex, 
Bartsia  coccinea,  and  many  others,  have  several  bractes. 

d.  In  respect  to  size  and  height,  bractes  are,  1. 
shorter  than  the  calyx,  as  in  Justicia  hyssopifolia,  and 
Ruellia  ringens.    2.  longer  than  the  calyx,  as  in  Salvia 

■  See  Plate  IV. 

t  See  Plate  XIII.  Fig.  I.     Hypoxis  has  often  more  than  turo  bractes. 


80  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

Sclarea,  Ruellia  repens,and  Stipa  spinifex.  3.  larger  than 
the  calyx,  and  placed  under  it,  as  in  Royena  villosa.  4. 
shorter  than  the  flower,  as  in  Salvia  sylvestris,  Fumaria 
nobilis,  and  Minuartia  campestris.  5.  of  equal  length 
with  the  flower,  in  Fumaria  bulbosa,  Hypoxis  erecta, 
Ornithogalum  comosum ;  and,  6.  longer  than  the  flower, 
as  in  Ribes  alpina,  and  Minuartia  montana.  7.  Cunila 
pulegioides,  called,  in  the  United- States,  Penny-Royal, 
&c.  besides  a  number  of  smaller  bractes,  has  two  that 
are  larger  than  the  flower,  placed  on  each  side  of  the 
footstalk. 

*£*.  Iisr  some  plants,  such  as  Crown- Imperial,  Laven- 
der, certain  species  of  Sage,  Bartsia  coccinea,  and  a  few 
others,  the  stem  is  terminated  by  a  number  of  very  large 
and  conspicuous  bractes, which  are  denominated  Coma*, 
and  Bractea  comosg,  from  their  resemblance  to  a  bush 
or  bunch  of  hair. 

In  discriminating  the  species  of  plants,  bractes,  par- 
ticularly those  of  the  bushy  kind  just  mentioned,  are  of 
essential  consequence. 

The  real  use  of  the  bracte,  in  the  vegetable  econo- 
my, does  not  appear  to  be  completely  ascertained.  In 
many  vegetables,  indeed,  this  part  is  so  very  inconside- 
rable in  size,  and  so  similar  to  minute  squamae  or  scales, 
which,  in  other  parts  ofthe  plant,  have  not  seemed  tp  me- 
rit any  attention,  and  have  not  received  a  name,  that  it 
appears  that  such  minute  bractes  are  of  no  very  indis- 
pensihle  consequence.  But  in  other  plants,  the  bracte  is 
a  part  large,  conspicuous,  and  seems  to  answer  some  im- 

*  Coma,  from  Ko/hyi,  a  head  of  hair. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  81 

portant  purpose.  Dr.  Darwin  conjectures,  that  the  brac- 
tes, or  floral  leaves,  "  supply  an  organ  of  respiration  to 
44  the  calyx  and  pericarp  of  the  flower-bud."     All  the 
different  kinds  of  bractes,  according  to  this  multifarious 
genius,  "  serve  the  office  of  lungs,  for  the  purpose  of  ex- 
'  posing  the  vegetable  blood  to  the  influence  of  the  air, 
'  and  of  preparing  it  for  the  secretion,  or  production 
4  and  nourishment  of  the  vegetable  uterus,  or  pericarp, 
4  and  of  the  seeds  produced  and  retained  in  it,  frequent- 
4  ly  before  their  impregnation,  and  always  after  it." 

Dr.  Darwin  observes,  that  in  many  plants,  "brac- 
4  tes  do  not  appear  till  after  the  corol  and  nectaries,  with 
4  the  anthers  and  stigmas,  drop  off;  that  is,  not  till  after 
4  the  seed  is  impregnated,  as  in  Colchicum  autumnale, 
4  Crocus,  Hamamelis,  and  in  some  fruit-trees.  The 
4  production  of  the  vegetable  uterus,  or  pericarp,  with 
4  the  unimpregnated  seeds  included  in  it,  is  (our  author 
asserts)  4'  in  these  plants  accomplished  or  evolved, 
4  like  the  bractes  themselves,  with  the  corol  and  sexu- 
4  al  organs,  by  the  sap-juice,  forced  up  in  the  umbili- 
4  cal  vessels  from  some  previously  prepared  reservoir, 
4  without  the  necessity  of  any  exposition  to  the  air  in 
4  leaves  or  lungs,  which  are  not  yet  formed,  though  it 
4  may  acquire  oxygenation  in  the  fine  arteries  of  the 
4  embryon  buds,  which  are  supposed  to  surround  the 
4  horizontal  air-vessels,  observed  in  the  bark  of  trees. 

44  As  soon  as  the  seeds  become  impregnated,  the 
44  corol  and  nectaries  with  the  sexual  organs  fall  off,  and 
44  the  pericarp  and  its  contained  seeds  are  then  nourish- 
44  ed  by  the  blood,  which  is  aerated  or  oxygenated  in 
44  the  bractes,  or  floral  leaves.  Thus  the  flower  of  the 
44  Colchicum  appears  in  autumn  without  any   green 

M 


82  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

"  leaves,  and  the  pericarp  with  its  impregnated  seeds, 
"  rises  out  of  the  ground,  inthe  ensuing  spring,  on  astern 
44  surrounded  with  bractes,  and  with  other  green  leaves 
44  below  them,  which  produce  new  bulbs  in  their 
44  bosoms." 

Dr.  Darwin  is  of  opinion,  that  the  blood  which 
supplies  nourishment  to  the  pericarp  and  the  seeds 
which  it  contains,  44  does  not  seem  to  require  so  much 
44  oxygenation  as  that  which  supplies  nutriment  to  the 
44  embryon  buds;  whence  (he  remarks)  the  floral  leaves 
44  are,  in  general,  much  less  than  the  root-leaves  in 
44  many  plants,  and  than  the  common  green  leaves  of  al- 
44  most  all  vegetables*." 

6.  The  Spina,  Spine,  or  Thorn,  is  a  sharp  process 
from  the  ligneous,  or  woody  part  of  the  plant,  and  is  said 
to  serve  for  its  defence.  We  have  instances  of  this  in 
many  plants,  such  as  Prunus,  Crataegus,  Gleditsia,  &c. 

Spines  are  protruded  from  the  stem  and  branches, 
as  in  Buck-thorn,  Pear,  Plum,  and  Orange  trees;  from 
the  petioles,  as  in  Robinia  Pseud-Acacia,  called  Locust 
in  the  United- States;  from  the  leaves  themselves,  as  in 
Aloe ;  Agave  americana,  or  American  Aloe ;  Yucca  fila- 
mentosa,  or  Adam's  needle;  Holly;  Manchineel  (Hippo- 
mane  Mancinella),  Butcher's-broom,  &c.  from  the  rjfcs 
of  the  leaves,  as  in  several  species  of  Nightshade :  from 
the  calyx,  as  in  Thistle;  from  the  seed-vessel,  or  peri- 
carp, as  in  Datura  Stramonium, or  Thorn-apple,  &c.  &c. 

Thorns  are  either  terminating,  that  is  placed  at  the 
end  of  a  branch  or  leaf;  or  axillary,  proceeding  from  the 

*  Phytologia,  &c  Sect.  IV. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  83 

angle  which  is  formed  by  a  branch  or  leaf  with  the  stem. 
The  first  is  the  spina  terminalis,  and  the  last,  the  spi- 
na axillaris,  of  Linnaeus. 

Thorns  are  either  simple,  as  in  the  greater  number 
of  thorny  plants ;  double  as  in  Horned  Acacia;  or  triple, 
as  in  the  Honey-locust  of  the  United- States,  which,  on 
account  of  the  number  of  its  thorns,  is  called  Gleditsia 
triacanthos.  It  must  not,  however,  be  supposed,  that  the 
number  of  thorns,  growing  together,  in  the  same  spe- 
cies, is  always  the  same:  for  in  the  Gleditsia, although  the 
number  is,  in  general,  three,  there  is  sometimes  only 
one;  sometimes  there  are  two,  sometimes  five  or  six. 

7.  The  Aculeus*,  or  Prickle,  is  a  sharp  process 
from  a  plant,  arising  from  the  bark  only,  and  not  from 
the  wood.  In  this  respect,  it  differs  essentially  from 
the  spina,  or  thorn,  which  is  a  prolongation  of  the 
woody  part  of  the  vegetable,  to  which  it  belongs.  The 
difference  of  the  origin  of  these  two  species  of  armature 
is  very  apparent,  from  the  facility  with  which  the  prickle 
is  detached,  the  bark  merely  coming  away  with  it,  and 
not  the  wood;  whereas  the  thorn  is  not  removed,  with- 
out, at  the  same  time,  removing  a  portion  of  the  wood. 
Owing  to  this  difference  of  origin,  prickles  are  less  rigid 
than  thorns. 

The  Rose,  the  Raspberry,  the  Berberry,  the  Aralia 
spinosa,  called  Angelica-tree;  the  Currant,  and  other 
bushes  or  vegetables,  furnish  us  with  familiar  examples 
of  the  prickle. 

*  Aculeus,  from  Acus,  a  needle. 


84  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

Prickles  are  either,  1.  recti,  straight;  as  in  the 
Solanum  indicum.  2.  incurm,  bent  inwards;  as  in  Mi- 
mosa cineraria.  3.  recurvi,  recurved,  or  bent  outwards. 
4.  tomentosi,  downy;  or  covered  with  a  silver- white 
wooly  appearance  ;  as  in  Solanum  sanctum.  5.  acerosi, 
chaffy ;  as  in  Solanum  tomentosum.  6.  geminati,  double; 
or  two  growing  together;  as  in  Euphorbia  canariensis, 
and  in  Euphorbia  officinarum. 

Prickles,  when  divided,  are  named,  /urea,  forks, 
or  forked  prickles;  and  are  called  bifid,  trifid,  &c.  from 
the  number  of  their  divisions. 

We  appear  to  be  rather  better  acquainted  with  the 
final  intention  of  nature  in  forming  thorns  and  prickles, 
than  some  of  the  other  parts  of  vegetables.  These 
two  species  of  armature  seem  to  have  been  bestowed 
upon  vegetables,  in  some  measure,  for  the  purposes  of 
defence,  against  the  injuries  of  animals.  But  that  this  is 
the  sole  use  of  the  prickle  and  the  thorn,  many  circum- 
stances are  calculated  to  render  doubtful.  Numerous 
vegetables,  upon  which  various  species  of  animals  com- 
mit great  ravages,  are  destitute  both  of  spines  and 
prickles;  and,  on  the  other  hand,  there  are  not  a  few  in- 
stances of  vegetables,  which  are  carefully  guarded  with 
"^Yiese  armatures,  although  their  poisonous  or  other  qua- 
lity is  sufficient  to  secure  them  from  injuries. 

Culture  exerts  a  decided  effect  upon  both  the 
spines  and  prickles  of  vegetables.  The  branches  of  the 
Pear,  the  Orange,  the  Citron,  the  Lemon,  the  Medlar, 
the  Hawthorn,  the  Gooseberry-bush,  not  to  mention 
others,  when  taken  under  the  fostering  care  of  the  gar- 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  85 

dener,  often  lose  their  spines.  This  shows  how  great 
are  the  effects  of  culture  upon  vegetables:  perhaps,  it 
even  shows,  that  the  spine  and  the  prickle  were  intend- 
ed for  the  purpose  which  has  been  mentioned;  since  ve- 
getables so  frequently  lose  their  armature,  when  they  are 
transferred  to  the  soil  that  is  tilled  by  man,  who  will 
guard,  with  interested  attention,  these  plants  from  the 
depredations  of  animals. 

8.  The  Glandula,  Gland, or  Glandule,  is  said  to  be  a 
kind  of  secretory  or  excretory  vessel,  which  is  found 
upon  the  surface  of  many  vegetables.  In  his  Philosophia 
Botanica,  Linnaeus  defines  it  to  be  a  papilla  excreting  a 
fluid  or  humour*.  In  the  Delineatio  Plantts,  he  defines 
it  a  fulcre  secreting  a  liquorf .  This  last  definition  is  un- 
meaning, and  intolerable. 

Glands  are  found  upon  almost  every  part  of  the 
surface  of  different  plants.  They  assume  a  great  variety 
of  appearances.  Sometimes,  they  resemble  a  blister  or 
bladder,  as  in  St.  John's-wort;  sometimes  a  number  of 
scales,  as  in  many  Ferns;  sometimes  small  grains,  not 
unlike  those  of  Millet,  as  in  Fir-tree ;  sometimes  a  small 
cup,  as  in  the  Apricot-tree.  In  many  instances,  glands 
are  furnished  with  their  proper  footstalks :  often  they  are 
situated  upon  the  leaves  of  plants,  without  any  foot- 
stalks. 

In  the  following  plants,  glands  are  situated  on  the 
petioles,  or  footstalks  of  the  leaves,  viz.  Ricinus  com- 
munis, Cassava,  Passion-flower,  different  species  of  Cas- 

*  •'  Papilla  humorem  excernens." 
t  '•  Fulcrum  secernens  humorem." 


86  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

sia*,  and  Robinia.  They  are  seated  on  the  indented  or 
sawed  edges  of  the  leaves  in  the  Willow-tree.  In  the  Al- 
mond-tree, the  Gourd,  the  Gelder-Rose,  and  the  Bird- 
Cherry,  they  proceed  from  the  base  of  the  leaf.  In  the 
Urena,  Tamarisk,  Bastard  Ricinus,  and  others,  they 
spring  from  its  back;  whilst  in  the  Butter- wort,  and 
Sundew,  they  come  out  from  its  upper  surface. 

In  some  plants,  as  in  Mountain  Ebonyf,  and  Apri- 
cot-tree, the  glands  are  situated  upon  the  tender  stipules 
or  scales,  which  surround  the  young  foot-stalks  of  the 
flower  and  the  leaves.  Such  glands  are  called  by  Lin- 
naeus, glandula  stipulares>  or  stipular  glands. 

In  other  plants,  as  in  the  Currant-tree,  Fig-wort, 
Viscous  Campion,  Sec.  &c.  the  glands  are  slender,  like 
hairs:  hence  they  are  called  glandula  capillar  es,  or  ca- 
pillary glands. 

A  glandular  appearance  is  frequently  observed 
between  the  stamens  of  certain  plants,  particularly  those 
which  belong  to  the  xvth  class,  Tetradynamia,  of  the 
Sexual  System  J. 

Although  Linnaeus  has  been  pleased  to  denomi- 
nate the  parts  of  which  I  have  been  speaking,  glands, 
it  is  by  no  means  certain,  that  they  do,  in  reality,  per- 
form a  glandular  office.  On  the  contrary,  there  are 
good  reasons  for  suspecting,  that  many  of  the  glandular, 
in  the  Linnaean  sense  of  the  word,  are  no  ways  concern- 
ed in  the  function  of  secretion. 

*  See  the  figures  of  Cassia  marilandica,  and  Passiflora  incarnata. 
t  Bauhinia  aculeata.  \  See  Plate  XIX.  Fig.  III. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  87 

These  parts,  whatever  may  be  their  uses,  are  of 
great  importance  in  discriminating  the  species  of  certain 
genera  of  plants.  Thus,  the  Almond  and  the  Peach  are 
two  distinct  species  of  one  genus,  the  Amygdalus ;  but 
it  is  hardly  possible  to  distinguish  the  two  species,  with- 
out calling  in  the  aid  of  the  glands.  In  the  Almond, 
these  are  situated  at  the  base  of  the  leaves,  upon  the 
serratures;  but  the  Peach  is  destitute  of  the  glandular 
structure. 

To  this  general  head  of  glands,  Linnaeus  seems  to 
refer  the  following,  viz.  1.  Folliculi,  follicles,  or  ves- 
sels distended  with  air,  such  as  are  observable  at  the 
roots  of  the  Utricularia,  or  Water-Milfoil,  and  on  the 
leaves  of  the  Aldrovanda*.  He  might,  with  as  much  pro- 
priety, have  added,  the  much  larger  bags,  or  vesicles, 
which  are  found  upon  various  species  of  Fuci,  or  Sea- 
wreck.  In  these  last,  the  air  has  been  examined,  and 
found  to  be  much  purer  than  atmospheric  air.  2.  Utri- 
eidi,  or  utricles,  which  are  said  to  be  filled  with  a  se- 
creted liquor;  though,  I  believe,  it  cannot  be  proved, 
that  it  is,  in  all  plants,  a  secreted  liquor.  The  Nepen- 
thes destillatoria,  a  native  of  Ceylon,  furnishes  us  with  a 
very  remarkable  example  of  what  Linnaeus  calls  the 
utriculus.  The  extremity  of  the  leaf  of  this  plant  termi- 
nates in  a  filiform  process,  and  this,  again,  in  a  cylin- 
der, which  is  closed  at  the  end  by  an  opercle,  or  lid, 
so  as  to  retain  water.  Different  species  of  the  genus 
Sarracenia  have  hollow  leaves,  which  retain,  for  a  consi- 
derable time, the  water  that  has  been  received  into  them, 
from  the  rain,  dew,  &cf.     But  I  cannot  think,  that 

*  Aldrovanda  vesiculosa,  a  native  of  the  marches,  or  standing  waters  j  of 
India  and  of  Italy. 

t  See  Plate  I. 


88  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

there  is  any  manner  of  propriety  in  considering  as  glands, 
the  curious  structure  of  these  two  plants. 

9.1  am  now  to  give  some  account  of  the  last  species  of 
fulcre  enumerated  by  Linnaeus.  This  is  the  Pilus,  or 
Pubes.  This  is  a  general  term,  comprehending  various 
species  of  pubescence,  hairiness,  or  shagginess  upon  a 
plant;  or, in  other  words,  "  whatever  clothes  it  with  any 
"  hairy  or  villous  substance." 

The  following  species  of  pubescence  are  enumera- 
ted by  the  Swedish  naturalist:  viz.  Pili,  Hairs.  2.  La- 
na,  Wool;  or  close  curled  hairs.  3.  Barb  a,  Beard;  or 
parallel  hairs.  4.  Tomentum,  Flocks;  or  interwoven  vil- 
lous hairs,  scarcely  conspicuous.  5.  Striga,  stiflish 
flattish  hairs.  6.  Seta,  Bristles;  or  stiffish  roundish  hairs. 
7.  Hami,  Hooks;  sharp  crooked  points.  8.  Glochides, 
Barbs;  straight  toothed  points,  or  pointed  hairs. 

I  cannot  pretend  to  enter  into  a  full  investigation 
of  the  history  or  appearances  of  all  these  various  species 
or  varieties  of  pubescence.  The  subject,  however,  is 
too  important,  in  the  study  of  plants,  to  be  dismissed 
without  some  further  notice. 

Perhaps,  there  are  very  few  plants  entirely  desti- 
tute of  some  kind  of  hairy  covering,  or  pubescence.  It 
is  true,  indeed,  that  to  the  naked  eye,  the  leaves  or  other 
parts  of  many  vegetables  appear  to  be  absolutely  smooth: 
but,  even  in  these,  the  microscope  discovers  various  lit- 
tle hairs,  or  other  species  of  pubescence.  It  is  especi- 
ally upon  the  young  stalks  or  stems  of  plants,  that  this 
minute  covering  is  discoverable. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  89 

The  hairs  which  are  distributed  over  the  surface  of 
vegetables  assume  a  considerable  variety  of  forms. 
Thus,  in  the  leguminous  plants,  they  are  generally  cy- 
lindrical :  in  the  malvaceous  plants,  they  terminate  in  a 
point:  in  the  Agrimonia,  or  Agrimony,  they  are  shaped 
like  a  fish-hook:  in  Nettle,  they  are  subulate,  or  awl- 
shaped,  and  jointed;  and  in  some  of  the  Syngenesious 
plants,  that  are  furnished  with  hollow,  or  funnel-shaped 
florets,  they  terminate  in  two  crooked  joints. 

As  early  as  the  year  1682,  the  celebrated  Dr.  Nehe- 
miah  Grew,  and  in  1686  Marcellus  Malpighi,  had  paid 
some  attention  to  the  different  kinds  of  hairs  which  con- 
stitute a  downy  covering  upon  the  surfaces  of  vegeta- 
bles. But  it  was  not  until  the  year  1745,  that  the  subject 
was  handled  in  the  masterly  manner  it  deserved.  In  that 
year,  Mr.  J.  Stephen  Guettard,  a  very  ingenious  and 
learned  French  naturalist,  began  to  publish  his  observa- 
tions upon  the  hairs  and  glands  of  plants.  These  obser- 
vations he  continued  during  several  succeeding  years. 
The  author  has  even  established  a  botanical  method  dedu- 
ced from  the  form,  the  situation,  and  other  circumstances 
of  the  hairy  and  other  glandular  appearances,  on  the  sur- 
face of  plants.  He  has  shown,  what  perhaps,  would  hardly 
have  been  suspected,  that  these  appearances  are,  in  ge- 
neral, constant  and  uniform  in  all  the  plants  of  the  same 
family,  or  genus.  Hence,  he  has  observed,  that  they 
constitute  good  generic,  but  not  specific,  characters. 

A  minute  investigation  of  the  subject  of  vegetable 
pubescence  would  be  more  worthy  of  our  attention,  if 
we  were  acquainted  with  the  actual  use  of  this  kind  of 
covering.  But  upon  this  subject,  little  certain  can  be 
said.     It  seems  very  probable,  that  the  pubescence  of 

N 


90  ,     ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

plants  serves  various  useful  purposes.  I  am  inclined  to 
think,  that  many  of  the  hairs  which  cover  the  different 
parts  of  plants  are  exhaling  and  absorbing  lymphatic-ves- 
sels. Some  seem  to  have  been  designed,  in  a  great  mea- 
sure, for  the  purpose  of  preserving  the  parts  where  they 
are  lodged,  from  the  effects  of  friction;  whilst  others  may 
form  a  kind  of  covering,  like  the  furs,  hairs,  bristles, 
&x.  of  animals,  for  protection  from  cold,  and  other  inju- 
rious causes. 

LiNNiEus  asserts,  that  an  experienced  botanist  will 
often  find  it  easy  to  determine,  from  an  inspection  of 
plants,  whether  they  belong  to  Africa,  Asia,  America, 
or  the  Alpine  countries;  though  he  may  not  be  able  to 
say,  by  what  feature,  in  the  general  physiognomy,  he  has 
made  the  distinction.  The  Swedish  naturalist,  how- 
ever, speaks  of  the  American  plants  as  being  verdant,  and 
smooth*.  I  do  not  doubt,  that  to  the  vegetables  of  ex- 
tensive tracts  of  the  three  portions  of  the  world  which 
Linnaeus  has  mentioned,  a  kind  of  national  physiognomy 
often  belongs :  as  we  observe,  that  even  the  human  inha- 
bitants of  such  countries  have  a  set  of  features  exclusively 
belonging  to  them.  Thus,  an  Anglo-American  may,  very 
generally,  be  distinguished  from  an  Englishman.  But  I 
suspect,  that  there  is  much  more  difficulty  than  Linnse- 
us  seems  to  have  imagined,  in  deciding,  with  certainty, 
from  the  mere  fades,  or  aspect,  of  vegetables,  upon  the 
native  countries  of  those  vegetables.  How,  indeed,  can 
this  be  doubted,  when  it  is  considered,  that  the  very  same 


*  "  Primo  intuitu  distinguit  sxpius  excrcitatus  Botanicus  plantas  Africa?, 
"  Asus,  America;,  Alpiumque,  sed  Hon  facile  diceict  ipse,  ex  qua  nora.  Nescio, 
"  qux  fades  torva,  sicca,  cbscura  Afris,-  quae  superba,  exaltata  Asiaticis; 
"  qu;e/<f?«,  glabra  Amehicanis;  qua; coarctata,  indurata  Alpinis  ?  Philosophia 
Botanica,  kc  p.  117,  US, 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  91 

species  of  vegetables  are  common  to  two,  and  even  three, 
quarters  of  the  globe?  Thus,  the  northern  parts  of 
North- America,  and  the  northern  parts  of  Europe,  pos- 
sess a  considerable  number  of  vegetables  in  common 
with  each  other.  Many  species  are  common  to  Siberia, 
Kamtchatka,  Japan,  &c.  and  to  the  north  of  America. 
A  considerable  number  are  common  to  the  United- States 
and  to  Hindoostan;  and  even  a  few  are  common  to  the 
Cape  of  Good-Hope  and  North- America. 

That  the  American  plants  are  peculiarly  smooth,  I 
am  far  from  being  convinced.  Linnaeus  might  have 
found,  in  our  woods,  very  many  species  covered  over 
with  all  the  various  kinds  of  pubes,  pubescentia,  or  pi- 
lus,  which  he  has  mentioned*.  I  cannot  but  suspect,  that 
the  great  naturalist,  misled  by  the  phantom  of  a  false 
analogy,  conceived  the  plants  of  America  very  smooth, 
partly,  at  least,  because  the  man  of  America  has  been 
so  generally  deemed,  and  by  Linnasusf ,  among  other 
writers,  beardless,  and  smooth-skinned.  But  we  now 
know,  that  the  Indians  of  America  are  not  more  smooth 
than  are  the  Japanese,  the  Chinese,  the  Koriaks,  and 
many  other  nations  or  hordes  of  Asia  J. 


*  Such,  not  to  mention  many  others,  are  Rhus  typhinum,  Epigxa  repens, 
Spirtea  tomentosa,  Sida  Abutilon,  many  of  the  Oaks,  Walnuts,  or  Hickeries, 
and  a  very  considerable  number  of  species  in  the  great  class  of  Syngenesia. 

f  Sy  sterna  Naturae.   Tom.  I.  p.  29. 

|  See  New  Views  of  the  Origin  of  the  Tribes  and  Nations  of  America.  Pre- 
liminary Discourse,  p.  55,  and  Appendix,  p.  32. 


92  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 


$.   IV. 

"  Where  dwell  my  vegetative  realms  benumb'd, 
"  In  Buds  imprison'd,  or  in  Bulbs  intomb'd." 

The  Botanic  Garden.  Part  I. 

Canto  1. 1. 459,  460. 

I  am  now  to  speak  of  that  part  of  the  vegetable 
which  Linnaeus  has  denominated  the  Hybernaculum,  or 
Winter-quarters  of  the  plant.  Professor  Martyn  calls  it 
the  Hybernacle. 

The  hybernaculum  is  defined  by  the  Swedish  natu- 
ralist to  be  a  part  of  the  plant  which  encloses  the  embryo- 
herb,  protecting  it  from  external  injuries.  In  his  lan- 
guage, it  is  either  a  bulbus,  or  agemma. 

I.  Of  the  bulbus,  or  bulb,  I  have  already  made  very 
particular  mention*.  I  have  given  my  reasons  for  consi- . 
dering  it  as  a  species  of  root.  At  present,  I  am  to  take 
no  farther  notice  of  it,  but  am  to  confine  myself  to  the 
consideration  of  the  Gemma,  or  bud.  Previously,  how- 
ever, to  my  doing  this,  it  will  be  proper  to  give  some 
account  of  the  bulbus  caulinus,  and  other  similar  pro- 
ductions, to  which  I  have  alluded  in  a  former  part  of  the 
workf-  Consistently  with  my  view  of  the  subject,  I 
could  not,  with  propriety,  treat  of  those  productions, 
under  the  head  of  roots. 

The  bulbus  caulinus,  or  stem-bulb,  is  a  small  spe- 
cies of  bulb,  or  hybernacle,  which  is  situated  immedi- 

•  See  page  8— 13.  f  See  page  12. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  93 

ately  upon  the  stem  or  stalk  of  certain  plants,  having  no 
immediate  connection  with  the  root.  In  the  Dentaria*,or 
Tooth-wort,  the  Saxifraga,  or  Saxifragef,  the  Lilium 
bulbiferum,  or  Bulbiferous  Lily,  and  many  other  plants, 
we  find  small  bulbs  in  the  wings  of  the  leaves,  that  is 
at  the  place  where  the  leaf  is  united  to  the  stem.  If, 
after  the  stalks  have  decayed,  these  bulbs  be  taken  off, 
and  planted,  they  will  soon  take  root,  and  vegetate.  It 
is  evident,  therefore,  that  these  productions  are  the  re- 
positories of  an  embryo  or  miniature-plant;  and,  there- 
fore, they  may,  with  strict  propriety,  be  considered  as  a 
species  of  hybernacle. 

In  some  of  the  alliaceous  plants,  or  plants  of  the 
Onion  and  Garlick  kind,  bulbs,  very  similar  to  those 
which  I  have  just  mentioned,  are  produced  at  the  ori- 
gin of  the  umbel  of  flowers,  between  the  peduncles,  or 
footstalks  of  the  flowers.  Such  alliaceous  plants  are  fre- 
quently called  bulbiferous  plants.  The  individual  bulbs 
are  well  known  among  gardeners,  and  in  common  lan- 
guage, by  the  name  of"  cloves  J." 

The  structure  of  these  cauline  and  umbel-bulbs  ap- 
pears to  be  very  similar  to  that  of  the  true  root-bulbs, 
of  which  I  have  given  an  account. 

Bulbous  granules,  or  productions, are  very  common 
in  many  species  of  Lichen,  belonging  to  the  xxivth 
class  of  the  Sexual  System.  But,  in  these  Lichens,  the 
bulbs  are  situated  without  the  axils  of  the  leaves. 

*  Denraria  bulbifera.  J  Saxifraga  bulbifera,  and  S.  cermia 

\  See  Plate  III. 


94  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

In  many  plants,  we  observe  an  appearance,  which, 
from  its  general  affinity  to  that  of  the  true  bulbous  gra- 
nules, deserves  to  be  mentioned,  in  this  place.  Some 
species  of  Poa,  and  other  grasses,  shoot  out  from  their 
flowers,  bulbous-like  processes,  which  falling  to  the 
ground,  there  take  root,  and  vegetate  into  plants  simi- 
lar to  the  parent*.  Such  plants  are  called  viviparous 
plants.  In  the  Tangekolli,  a  plant  of  Senegal,  which 
is  particularly  mentioned  by  Mr.  Adanson,  the  seeds 
germinate  in  the  fruit  or  capsule,  forming  bulbs,  or 
suckers,  even  before  the  fruit  has  arrived  at  maturity. 
The  Agave  vivipara,  of  East-Florida,  exhibits  a  very  si- 
milar appearance.  After  the  flowers  of  this  fine  vege- 
table have  fallen  off",  the  seeds  often  vegetate,  and  even 
arrive  to  a  pretty  considerable  size,  their  leaves  being 
sometimes  three  or  four  inches  long,  whilst  the  new 
offspring  is  still  attached  to  the  parent  tree.  The  branch- 
es of  the  Agave  frequently  appear  alive  with  the  young 
plants.  These  falling  to  the  ground,  there  take  root,  and 
grow  and  flower.  To  this  vegetable,  a  celebrated  bota- 
nist, Paul  Herman,  gave  the  very  appropriate  name  of 
Sobolifera\.  The  appearance  exhibited  by  the  Tange- 
kolli and  Agave,  may,  not  unaptly,  be  compared  to  that 
of  a  Polypus,  with  a  numerous  progeny  sprouting  from 
various  parts  of  her  body. 

Under  this  head  of  stem-bulbs,  I  may,  with  propri- 
ety, mention  the  fleshy  and  succulent  leaves  of  various 
species  of  plants,  particularly  those  of  the  liliaceous  or- 
der, such  as  the  Aloe,  the  Squill,  and  others;  and  also 

'  See  Plate  III. 

t  Aloe  Americana  Sobolifera. — Horti  Academici  Lugduno-Batavi  Catalogus, 
&c.  p.  16—18  .  pi.  2.  _ 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  95 

the  leaves  of  some  species  of  Arum,  or  Cuckow-Pint. 
.  These,  if  they  be  carefully  planted  in  the  ground,  will, 
in  due  time,  emit  radicles,  or  fibres,  and  vegetate. 
Hence,  it  is  evident,  that  there  would  be  some  propri- 
ety in  denominating  such  leaves,  hybernacles.  Perhaps, 
the  leaves  of  all  plants  contain  the  miniature-embryons 
of  millions  of  plants,  which  are  never  brought  into 
open  view. 

The  bulbous  granules,  whether  they  be  situated  in 
the  wings  of  the  leaves,  or  other  parts  of  the  stalk,  fur- 
nish the  botanist  with  excellent  marks  for  the  discrimi- 
nation of  different  species  of  plants,  in  the  genera  Orni- 
thogalum,  Dentaria,  Polygonum,  Saxifraga,  Lilium, 
Allium,  &x.  Different  species  of  these  genera  receive 
their  specific  names,  bulbifera,  or  bulbiferum,  and  vhi- 
para,  or  mmparum,  from  the  bulbs  which  are  found 
upon  them*. 

2.  The  hybernacle  which  more  particularly  claims 
our  attention  is  the  Gemma,  or  Bud.  This  is  defined  by 
Linnzeus  to  be  a  species  of  hybernacle  sitting  upon  the 
ascending  caudex,  or  stem,  and  branches,  and  composed 
of  stipules,  or  petioles,  or  the  rudiments  of  leaves,  or 
cortical  scales.  In  fact,  every  bud  is  to  be  considered  as 
an  epitome,  or  compendium,  of  one  or  more  plants  simi- 
lar to  the  parent  plant.  In  other  words,  the  bud,  as  Lof- 
ling  observes,  is  nothing  else  than  the  plant  or  vegetable 
straitened  from  a  defect  of  the  powers  of  vegetationf. 


*   Dentaria  bulbifera,   SaNifraga    bulbifera,  Dioscorea  bulbifera,    Lilium 
bulbiferum,  Polygonum  viviparum. 

f  "  Gemma  enim  nihil  alkld  est,  nisi  hcrba  ccarctata  a  dejecta  vis  vege- 

••  tuiitis,"  Scr 


96  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

The  term  hybernaculum,by  which  the  naturalist  of  Swe- 
den has  designated  the  bulb  and  the  bud,  is  very  happi- 
ly applied. 

Mr.  Ray  is  said  to  have  been  the  first  person  who 
gave  to  the  bud,  of  which  I  am  speaking,  the  name  of 
gemma.  Before  the  time  of  that  illustrious  naturalist, 
one  of  the  greatest  ornaments  of  his  country,  the  bud, 
we  are  told,  had  been  denominated germen.  It  is  admit- 
ted, indeed,  that  the  term  gemma  was  used  before  Ray's 
time,  to  signify  a  particular  species  of  bud,  viz.  that 
which  contains  a  flower;  and  some  of  the  ancient  authors 
appear  to  have  carefully  distinguished  it  from  the  ger- 
men, or  bud,  which  contained  leaves' and  wood.  Pliny, 
whose  merits  are  much  greater  than  some  writers  will 
allow  them  to  be,  seems  to  mark  the  distinction  between 
the  gemma,  and  the  germen,  in  very  precise  terms.  The 
following  are  the  words  of  the  Roman  naturalist:  "  Ger- 
"  men  autem  est  id,  quod  ex  ipsis  surculis  arborum  pri- 
"  mo  vere  exit,  ex  quo  deinde  folium  producitur:  nam 
"  gemma  proprie  est  floris,  quanquam  utrumque  con- 
"  fundatur*." 

Notwithstanding  the  very  precise  observation 
of  Pliny,  I  think  there  are  good  reasons  for  supposing, 
that  some  of  the  purest  of  the  Roman  classical  writers, 
used  the  term  gemma,  to  express  every  kind  of  bud, 
without  any  regard  to  its  individual  contents.  Thus, 
when  Virgil,  in  the  following  lines,  speaks  of  the  buds  of 
the  Vine,  under  the  name  of  "gemmae,"  he,  doubtless, 
means  the  leaf  and  flower-buds  of  that  vegetablef : 

*  Naturalis  Historic  Lib. 

t  Ovid,  too,  as  we  shall  afterwards  see,  calls  the  buds  of  the  Vine,  "  genwnrf." 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  97 

**  Muscosi  fontes,  et  somno  mollior  herba, 
M  Et  quae  vos  rara  viridis  tegit  arbutus  umbra, 
"  Solstitium  pecori  defendite:  jam  venit  aestas 
"  Torrida :  jam  Iceto  turgent  in  Palmite  gemmae" 

Eclog.  VII.  1.  45 — 48. 

With  respect  to  the  word  germen,  although  it  ap- 
pears, that  this  term  was  also  used  to  denote  a  bud,  it 
would  seem,  that  it  was  more  generally  employed  to  de- 
note a  branch,  or  young  twig,  or  sprout  of  a  tree. 
In  the  following  lines,  Virgil,  in  describing  the  opera- 
tion of  vegetable  inoculation,  or  budding,  seems  evi- 
dently to  call  by  the  name  of  "  germen'*  the  cion,  or 
bud,  which  is  made  use  of  in  this  process: 

"  Nee  modus  inserere,  atque  oculos  imponere,  simplex: 
"  Nam  qua  se  medio  trudunt  de  cortice  gemmae, 
"  Et  tenues  rumpunt  tunicas,  angustus  in  ipso 
"  Fit  nodo  sinus  :  hue  aliena  ex  arbore  germen 
•'  Includunt,  udoque  docent  inolescere  libro." 

Georgic.  Lib.  11.1.  73—7/. 

"  Experienc'd  art  by  varying  culture  knows 

u  To  graft  the  cion,  or  the  bud  enclose. 

M  Where  the  swoln  gem,  in  vernal  vigour  bold, 

"  Bursts  through  the  bark,  and  breaks  each  yielding  fold, 

"  Slit  the  mid  knot,  and,  in  the  wound  confin'd, 

"  Teach  the  strange  bud  to  wed  the  bleeding  rind." 

Sotheby. 

Buds  assume  different  forms  in  different  vegetables. 
In  general,  however,  they  may  be  said  to  be  small  and 
rounded,  or  conical,  bodies,  sometimes  ending  in  a 
point.  But  the  form  of  the  bud  is  often  so  different  in  the 
different  species  of  the  same  genus,  as  to  afford  to  the 
botanist  a  good  mark  of  distinction,  in  the  winter-sea- 

o 


98  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

son,  when  the  leaves  and  other  parts,  upon  which  the 
specific  characters  are  more  generally  founded,  cannot 
be  seen.  Thus,  in  many  species  of  Willow,  and  in 
Rhamnus,  or  Buckthorn,  the  specific  marks  are  often 
taken  from  the  form  of  the  buds. 

In  general,  buds  are  placed  at  the  extremity  of  the 
young  and  tender  vegetable  shoots,  and  along  the  course 
of  the  branches.  They  are  fixed,  by  a  short  foot-stalk, 
upon  a  species  of  brackets,  which  are  the  remainder  of 
the  leaves,  in  the  axils  of  which  the  buds  of  the  present 
were  formed  the  preceding  year.  Sometimes,  we  ob- 
serve only  one  bud  in  a  place  :  sometimes  two  are  to- 
gether, and  these  are  either  opposite  or  alternate :  whilst, 
sometimes  they  are  collected,  in  greater  numbers,  in 
whirls,  or  rings. 

The  construction  of  buds  is  at  once  beautiful  and 
intricate.  On  the  exterior  surface  of  these  vegetable 
cradles,  we  observe  a  number  of  scales,  which  are  more 
or  less  hard,  hollowed  like  a  spoon,  and  laid  over  each 
other,  in  the  manner  of  tiles  upon  the  roof  of  a  house. 
These  scales  are  often  beset  with  hairs,  and  other  spe- 
cies of  pubescence,  and  are  fixed  into  the  inner  plates 
of  the  bark  of  the  stem  and  branches,  from  which  bark 
they  seem  to  proceed.  We  cannot  be  at  a  loss  to  de- 
termine the  use  of  these  bud-scales.  They  serve  to 
defend  from  cold,  and  other  injuries,  the  tender  and  de- 
licate embryon-plants,that  are  contained  within  the  bud. 
The  scales  are  often  sealed,  as  it  were,  or  connected  to 
each  other,  and  to  the  embryon  within,  by  means  of  a 
thick,  clammy  juice,  which  in  the  buds  of  many  vege- 
tables, such  as  the  Populus  balsamifera,  or  Tacamahaca- 
tree,  is  of  a  resinous  nature,  and  highly  odoriferous. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  99 

It  is  probable,  that  in  some  plants,  this  viscous  matter 
may  be  useful  by  preventing  an  excess  of  perspiration 
from  the  bud.  When  the  internal  parts  of  the  bud  have 
expanded  and  unfolded,  the  scales,  being  no  longer  use- 
ful, fall  off. 

The  following  observations  of  Ledermuller,  an  in- 
genious German  naturalist,  are  well  calculated  to  show 
the  delicate  and  careful  structure  of  the  bud.  In  the  win- 
ter-season, he  separated  from  a  Horse-Chesnut  (iEscu- 
lus  Hippocastanum),  a  bud  not  exceeding  in  size  a  com- 
mon pea.  He  found  the  bud  to  be  covered  externally  with 
seventeen  scales,  anointed  with  a  viscid  fluid.  Having 
carefully  separated  these  scales,  the  whole  bud,  covered 
with  a  lanugo,  or  down,  was  brought  into  view.  On  re- 
moving the  down,  he  found  the  bud  surrounded  with 
four  branch-leaves,  and  covering  a  spike  of  flowers.  In 
this  spike,  our  author  very  distinctly  counted  sixty- 
eight  flowers!  By  the  assistance  of  a  microscope,  even 
the  pollen,  or  fecundating  powder  of  the  stamens,  was 
observable.  Some  of  it  was  opaque,  and  some  transpa- 
rent. 

Three  different  species  of  buds  are  enumerated  by 
the  botanists.  These  are,  1.  a  bud  containing  a  flower; 
2.  a  bud  containing  a  leaf  or  leaves;  and  3.  a  bud  con- 
taining both  flowers  and  leaves. 

I.  The  first  species  of  bud  that  I  have  mentioned,  is 
denominated  gemma  florifera,  or  the  flower-bud.  This 
contains  the  rudiments  of  one,  or  several,  or  many  flow- 
ers, without  leaves,  folded  over  each  other,  and  sur- 
rounded with  scales.  To  this  species  of  bud,  the  French 
have  given  the  name  of  "  bouton  afleur,  ou  au  fruit." 


100  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

It  is  often  found  at  the  extremity  of  the  small  branches 
of  certain  trees,  which  branches  are  shorter,  more  rough, 
and  less  beset  with  leaves,  than  the  other  branches.  It  is 
also  observable,  that  this  flower-bud  is,  in  general,  thick- 
er, shorter,  more  square,  and  less  pointed  than  the  other 
kinds,  which  are  next  to  be  mentioned.  It  commonly 
terminates  obtusely.  This  is  the  gemma  jioralis  of 
Linnaeus. 

This  species  of  bud  is  particularly  mentioned  by 
Pliny,  who  calls  it  oculus  gemma.  It  is  the  bud  which 
is  employed  in  that  species  of  grafting,  which  is  called 
inoculation,  or  budding. 

2.  The  second  species  of  bud  is  the  gemma  foli  if  era, 
or  leaf-bud.  It  contains  the  rudiments  of  several  leaves, 
without  flowers.  This  kind  of  bud  is  commonly  more 
pointed  than  the  first  species.  In  some  vegetables,  how- 
ever, as  the  Hazle-nut,  it  is  nearly  round;  and  in  the 
iEsculus  Hippocastanum,  or  Horse-Chesnut,  it  is  very 
thick.  Linnaeus  calls  this  species  of  bud,  gemma  foli- 
aris. 

3.  The  third  species  of  bud  is  the  gemma  foliifero- 
florifera,  or  flower  and  leaf  bud.  This  is  the  most  com- 
mon species  of  bud.  In  general,  it  is  smaller  than  either 
of  the  two  preceding  buds,  and  produces,  as  the  name 
imports,  both  flowers  and  leaves.  Linnaeus  denomi- 
nates this  bud,  gemma  communis. 

In  this  species  of  bud,  however,  the  flowers,  which 
are  mixed  with  the  leaves,  are  not  always  of  the  same 
kind.  Sometimes,  the  bud  protrudes,  1.  male-flowers 
with  leaves,  as  in  the  Pine,  and  Fir-tree :  2.  female-flow- 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  101 

ers  and  leaves,  as  in  the  Hazle-nut,  and  Carpinus,  or 
Horn-beam.  3.  hermaphrodite  flowers,  and  leaves,  as 
in  the  Elm-tree,  Cornus,  or  Cornel-tree,  Daphne,  or 
Mezereon,  and  the  Almond-tree. 

Those  buds  which  are  evolved  into  leaves  only, 
are  called  barren-buds.  Those,  which  contain  both 
leaves  and  flowers,  are  denominated  fertile.  These  terms 
are  very  properly  applied.  It  is  observed,  that  from  the 
size  or  bulk  of  the  bud,  we  can  often  foretel,  whether  it 
contains  merely  leaves,  or  flowers  and  leaves  together. 

The  final  object  or  ultimate  end  of  the  Great 
Creator  of  the  Universe,  in  forming  buds,  must 
now,  be  sufliciently  obvious.  They  are  the  protecting 
domes, the  cradles,  of  tender  embryons,  which,  in  due 
time,  are  to  burst  from  their  enclosures,  expose  them- 
selves to  the  light  of  the  day,  and  spread  eternal  beauties 
over  this  earth. 

"  Vere  nitent  Terrse,  vere  remissus  ager, 

"  Nunc  Herbs,  rupta  tellure,  cacumina  tollunt, 

"  Nunc  tumido  Gemmas  cortice  palmes  agit." 

Ovid.  Fast.  IV.  1. 126. 

Such  being  the  use  of  the  parts  which  I  am  consi- 
dering, we  are  not  to  wonder,  that  the  greater  number 
of  the  trees  and  shrubs  of  cold  climates  are  furnished 
with  buds.  In  such  climates,  the  protection  which  buds 
afford  is  wanted.  Lofling  has  observed,  that  the  Fran- 
gula,  a  species  of  Rhamnus,  or  Buck-thorn,  is  the  only 
native  tree  of  Sweden  which  is  destitute  of  buds*.    And 


*  See  his  excellent  paper,  entitled  "  Gemmae  Arborum,"  in  the  Amoenitates 
Academicae.  Vol.  II.  Dissertatio  XXIV. 


102  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

how  beautifully  does  this  vegetable  demonstrate  the  of- 
fice of  the  bud !  The  Frangula  requires  not  the  protect- 
ing aid  of  these  w inter- quarters :  for  "  it  grows  under 
trees,  in  the  marshy  forests,  where  it  is  defended,  along 
with  other  plants,  from  the  severity  of  the  winter*." 

On  the  other  hand,  it  ought  not  to  excite  our  sur- 
prize, that  buds  are  so  seldom  found  upon  the  vegetables 
of  warm  climates:  I  mean  those  climates  where  an  in- 
tensely cold  winter  is  unknown.  For  in  many  countries, 
as  in  those  of  the  northern  and  middle  states  of  the  Ame- 
rican Union,  although  the  summers  are  extremely  warm, 
the  winters  are  also  intensely  cold.  In  climates  which 
enjoy  an  uniform  series  of  mild  or  warm  seasons,  the  ten- 
der shoots  of  vegetables  do  not  stand  in  need  of  the  pro- 
tection of  buds.  The  following  list,  from  Lolling,  will 
show  what  vegetables,  among  others,  are  destitute  of 
buds:  viz.  Citron,  Change,  Lemon,  Cassava,  Mock- 
Orange,  Blad-  Apple,  Shrubby  Swallow- wort,  the  Shrub- 
by Geraniumsf,  Berry-bearing- Alder,  Christ's  Thorn, 
Syrian  Mallow,  Adansonia  or  Baobab,  Justicia,  Wild 
Senna,  the  Acacias  and  Mimosas,  Coral-tree,  Stinking 
Bean  Trefoil,  Oleander,  Tamarisk,  Heath,  Barbadoes- 
Cherry,  Tree-Mallow,  the  Shrubby  Nightshades  J,  Gui- 
nea   Henweed,   Cypress,   Lignum   Vitae,    and    Savin. 


*  "  Frangula  est  unica arbor  indigena  Suecioc,  qux  gemmis  caret,  sed  habitat 
"  ilia  sub  arboribus,  in  nemoribus  paludosis,  cum  alus  plantis  a  sevitia  hjemis 
"  defensa." 

f  Geranium  fulgidum,  G.  inquinans,  G.  papilionaceum,  G.  betulinum, 
G.  scabrum,  G.  cucullatum,  G.  gibbosum,  G.  carnosum,  G.  peltatum,  G.  aceto- 
sum,  G.  zonale,  G.  vitifolium,&.c.  &c.  of  Linnxus. 

J  Solanum  verbascifolium,  S.  guineense,  S.  Pseudo-Capsicum,  S.  diphyllum, 
S.  bonariense,  S.  pimpinellifolium,  S.  sanctum,  S.  tomentosum,  S.  bahamense,  &c. 
of  Linnaeus. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  103 

Some  of  the  vegetables,  in  this  list,  are  large  trees, 
such  are  the  Adansonia,  several  of  the  Mimosas,  &c. 
whilst  others  are  smaller,  but  furnished  with  ligneous 
or  woody  stems,  and  belong  to  the  families  of  shrubs  and 
under-shrubs,  as  they  are  denominated  by  the  English 
writers. 

True  or  complete  buds  are  never  produced  upon 
the  annual  plants,  or  those  whose  root  and  stem  perish 
after  the  term  of  a  year*.  In  these  annual  plants,  how- 
ever, small  branches,  like  minute  feathers,  are  protruded 
from  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  These  feather-like  proces- 
ses, which  seem  to  supply  the  place  of  the  buds,  wither 
without  undergoing  a  more  complete  evolution  or  ex- 
pansion, if  the  plants  to  which  they  belong  are  scandent, 
that  is  climb,  and  are  destitute  of  lateral  branches. 
But,  in  many  other  annual  plants,  these  feather-like  bo- 
dies, or  small  branches,  grow  into  plants,  similar  to  the 
parents. 

In  the  trees  of  warm  and  hot  countries,  an  appear- 
ance similar  to  that  which  I  have  described,  is  observed 
to  obtain.  In  these  trees,  several  of  which  are  enumera- 
ted in  the  preceding  list  of  budless  vegetables,  aplumu- 
la,  or  small  feather,  emits  branches,  without,  however, 
any  scaly  covering:  for,  as  I  have  already  observed,  this 
covering  is  not  wanted,  where  there  is  no  severity  of 
climate  to  injure  the  tender  shoot.  The  scaly  covering 
essentially  belongs  to  completely  formed  buds.  "  When 
"  we,  therefore,  speak  of  trees  having  buds,  that  are 
"  naked  or  without  scales,  our  meaning  is  the  same  as 
"  if  we  had  said,  that  they  have  no  buds  at  allf." 

•  Sre  pages  15, 16.  f  Milne. 


104  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

Mr.  Ray  and  Pontedera,  have  instituted  a  division 
of  vegetables  into  herbs,  or  herbaceous  vegetables,  and 
trees,  founding  the  distinction  upon  the  absence  or  the 
presence  of  the  gemmae,  or  buds.  The  herbs  they  have 
distinguished  by  the  name  of  plants  wanting  buds :  the 
trees  by  that  of  vegetables  bearing  buds. 

This  division  of  the  English  and  Italian  naturalists, 
however,  is  certainly  erroneous,  and  is  calculated  to  in- 
troduce much  confusion  into  the  science  of  vegetables. 
It  might  not  be  improper,  indeed,  to  adopt  such  a  dis- 
tinction in  the  history  of  the  plants  of  one  country,  not 
very  extensive,  or  not  enjoying  very  different  climates. 
But  it  ought  not  to  be  adopted  in  the  history  of  the  plants 
of  the  whole  globe ;  since  it  plainly  appears,  that  the 
greater  number  of  the  trees  of  warm  climates  are  desti- 
tute of  buds,  or  at  least  of  that  scaly  appearance,  which 
seems  to  belong  essentially  to  buds;  and,  hence,  such 
trees,  some  of  which  are  very  large  and  stately,  ought, 
upon  the  principles  of  the  two  authors  whom  I  have 
mentioned,  to  be  thrown  into  the  same  class  or  series  as 
the  humble,  herbaceous  plants.  Father  Plumier  disco- 
vered much  judgment  in  associating  together  the  trees 
and  the  herbaceous  plants;  though  his  illustrious  coun- 
tryman, Tournefort,  had  kept  them  asunder. 

With  respect  to  the  origin  of  buds,  two  different 
opinions  have  been  entertained  by  botanists.  Pontedera 
a  very  learned  Italian  botanist,  imagined,  that  the  buds 
derive  their  origin  from  the  ligneous,  or  woody  fibrillae. 
This  opinion  has  not,  so  far  as  I  know,  been  adopted  by 
any  succeeding  naturalist. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY,  105 

It  is  much  more  probable,  that  the  buds  derive  their 
origin  from  the  medulla,  or  pith  of  the  vegetable.  It  is 
certain,  that  the  pith  is  essentially  necessary  to  the  exist- 
ence and  growth  of  the  buds.  But  this  subject  will  come 
more  naturally  to  be  treated  of,  when  examining  the  ana- 
tomical structure  of  vegetables*. 

As  every  vegetable-bud  contains  the  primordium, 
or  embryon  of  a  plant,  and  if  separated  from  its  parent, 
and  nurtured  with  care,  would  produce  a  plant  specifi- 
cally the  same  as  the  supporting  stock,  we  are  led  to  re- 
flect upon  the  unbounded  fertility  of  Nature,  who  seems 
to  have  taken  delight  in  forming  (I  would  say  to  the  ex- 
tent of  her  power,  if  to  the  power  of  Nature  there  were 
any  limits),  living,  organized  existences.  Linnaeus  has 
made  a  calculation,  by  which  it  appears,  that  ten  thou- 
sand buds,  or,  in  other  words,  ten  thousand  herbs,  may 
be  produced  from  a  single  trunk,  not  exceeding  a  span 
in  diameter.  What  an  infinity  of  plants,  then,  might  be 
raised  from  some  of  the  most  stupendous  trees,  such  as 
the  Adansonia  of  Africa,  or  the  Liriodendron,  Platanus, 
and  others  of  North- America!  But  the  fertility  of  nature, 
in  the  formation  of  buds,  is  infinitely  greater  than  even 
philosophers  themselves  have,  in  general,  imagined. 
Millions  of  buds  lie  latent  in  the  tree,  and 
never  meet  the  light  of  the  DAY.  The  embryon 
punctum  is  not  evolved  into  notice,  from  a  deficiency 
of  those  stimulating  agents,  which,  if  they  be  not  the 
sole  capse  of  life,  are,  at  least,  essentially  necessary  to 
bring  the  phenomena  of  life  into  view. 

In  treating  of  the  seed,  I  shall  hint  at  the  compara- 
tive fertility  of  the  vegetable  and  animal  kingdoms. 

*  See  Part  II. 


106  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

Section   III. 

OF  THE  FRUCTIFICATION. 

We  now  enter  upon  the  consideration  of  the  third 
great  general  division  of  the  vegetable,  which  is  named 
the  Fructificatio*,  or  Fructification.  This  is 
beautifully  defined  by  Linnaeus,  to  be  a  "  temporary 
"  part  of  vegetables,  dedicated  to  the  business  of  gene - 
"  ration,  terminating  the  existence  of  the  old,  and  begin- 
ning the  era  of  the  new,  vegetablef." 

The  essence  of  the  fructification  consists  in  the  flow- 
er and  the  fruit.  These  two  parts,  according  to  the  Sex- 
ualists  (or  those  who  admit  of  the  existence  of  two  dis- 
tinct sexes  in  vegetables),  are  connected  in  the  same 
manner,  as  generation  and  birth  are  connected  together 
in  animals.  For  although  the  fruit  does  not  swell  and 
come  to  perfection,  until  after  the  flower  has  decayed, 
or  fallen,  it  seems  to  be  sufficiently  established  as  a  fact, 
by  the  experiments  of  many  learned  men,  that  the  pri- 
mordia,  or  earliest  rudiments,  of  the  fruit,  pre-exist  in 
the  flower.  But  this  subject  will  be  particularly  attended 
to,  in  a  future  part  of  this  work. 

When  perfect,  the  fructification  consists  of  the  fol- 
lowing seven  parts:  viz.  1.  the  Calyx.  2.  the  Corolla. 
3.  the  Stamen.  4.  the  Pistillum.  5. the  Pericarpyim.  6. 
the  Semen.  7.  the  Receptaculum.     Of  these,  the  four 

*  Fructificatio,  from  Fructus,  fruit,  and/ado,  to  make. 

f  "  Fructificatio  Vegetabilium  pars  temporaria,  Generationi  dicata,  anti- 
quum terminans,  novum  incipiens."  Philosophia  Botanica,  &c.  p.  52. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  107 

first  belong  to  the  flower,  properly  so  called ;  the  two  next 
to  the  fruit,  and  the  last  is  common  to  both. 

,.    I. 

I  begin  with  the  Calyx*.  This  is  defined  by  Lin- 
nseus  the  "  outer  bark  of  the  plant,  present  in  the  fruc- 
tification." The  calyx  is  frequently  denominated,  by 
English  writers  on  botany,  the  empalement  and  flow- 
er-cup. It  seems  more  proper,  however,  to  adopt  the 
Latin  word;  since  the  word  flower-cup,  if  used,  ought 
certainly  to  be  restricted  entirely  to  one  particular 
species  of  calyx,  the  perianthium,  or  perianth;  whereas 
the  term  calyx  is  a  generic  phrase,  comprehending,  as 
we  shall  presently  see,  various  parts,  very  distinct  in 
their  appearances,  and  perhaps,  in  their  office. 

LinnjEus  enumerates  seven  different  kinds  of  ca- 
lyx: viz.  1.  the  Perianthium.  2.  the  Involucrum.  3. 
the  Amentum.  4.  the  Spatha.  5.  the  Glurna.  6.  the 
Calyptra:  and  7.  the  Foha. 

1.  The  Perianthiumf,  or  Perianth,  is  the  most  com- 
mon species  of  calyx.  It  is  placed  most  contiguous  to 
the  fructification;  or,  in  other  words,  immediately  under 
the  flower,  which,  in  many  plants,  is  contained  in  the 
perianth,  as  in  a  cup.  On  this  account,  this  species  of 
calyx  has  been  denominated  the  flower-cup.  It  is  also 
called  the  Empalement. 


*  Calyx,  from  x«At/|,  and  originally  from  kxXvvIh,  to  cover:  not,  as  some 
writers  have  supposed,  from  xctXtZ,,  a  cup. 

t  Perianthium,  from  ?ri§<,  around ;  and  «»£»;,  a  flower. 


108  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

Various  species  of  perianthium  are  enumerated  by 
Linnaeus.  Of  these  it  is  necessary  that  I  should  take 
particular  notice. 

A.  The  Perianthium  fructificationis,  or  perianth 
of  the  fructification,  includes  both  the  stamens  and  the 
germ;  that  is,  the  male  and  female  organs  of  generation. 
This  is  the  most  common  species  of  perianth.  It  is  ex- 
emplified in  Nicotiana,  and  various  other  plants,  which 
are  figured  in  these  Elements. 

B.  The  Perianthium  jloris,  or  perianth  of  the 
flower,  contains  the  stamens,  but  not  the  germ.  This 
species  of  perianth  is  exemplified  in  Epilobium,  Gau- 
ra*,  and  all  those  other  vegetables  which  have  the  germ, 
or  seed-bud,  placed  below  the  receptacle  of  the  flower. 

C.  The  Perianthium  fructus,  or  perianth  of  the 
fruit,  contains  the  germ,  but  not  the  stamens.  This  is 
exemplified  in  the  females  of  many  of  the  plants  of  the 
two  classes  Monoecia  and  Dioeciaf. 

LinnuEa,  Clove-tree,  Morina,  and  several  other  ve- 
getables, have  two  perianths,  which  very  well  illustrate 
the  two  last  mentioned  terms.  In  these  vegetables,  one 
of  the  perianths  is  appropriated  to  the  flower,  whilst  the 
other  belongs  to  the  fruit. 

a.  With  respect  to  the  number  of  the  leaves,  or 
pieces,  of  which  it  is  composed,  the  perianth  has  re- 
ceived the  following  names:  viz.  1.  perianthium  mono- 

*  See  Plate  XVI.  Fig.  2. 
f  Sea  Plate  XXIX.  Fig.  2. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  109 

phyllum;  a  one-leafed  perianth,  composed  of  only  one 
leaf;  as  in  Tobacco,  Thorn- Apple,  Primrose,  and  many 
other  plants.  2.  perianthium  diphyllum,  a  two-leaved 
perianth,  consisting  of  two  leaves;  as  in  the  Poppy, 
Claytonia,  Fumatory.  3.  perianthium  triphyllum,  a 
three-leaved  perianth;  consisting  of  three  leaves,  as  in 
Dock,  Magnolia,  Tulip-tree,  Annona,  or  Papaw,  Po- 
dophyllum peltatum,  or  May-apple,  &c.  4.  perianthi- 
um tetraphyllum,  a  four-leaved  perianth,  consisting  of 
four  leaves;  as  in  Water-Lily,  Heath,  the  plants  of  the 
class  Tetradynamia.  5.  perianthium  pentapbyllum,2L 
five-leaved  perianth,  consisting  of  five  leaves;  as  in  Ra- 
nunculus, Glass- wort,  Beet,  Flax,  and  a  great  number 
of  those  plants  the  flowers  of  which  have  more  than  one 
petal.  6.  perianthium  hexaphyllum,  a  six-leaved  peri- 
anth, consisting  of  six  leaves;  as  in  Lions-leaf,  Berberry, 
Hillia  parasitica,  Sec.  7.  perianthium  heptaphyllum,  a 
seven-leaved  perianth;  consisting  of  seven  leaves;  as  in 
Trientalis,  or  Winter-green.  8.  perianthium  octophyl- 
lum,  an  eight-leaved  perianth,  consisting  of  eight  leaves, 
as  in  Mimusops,  and  Diapensia.  9.  perianthium  deca- 
phyllum,  a  ten-leaved  perianth;  consisting  of  ten  leaves; 
as  in  Galax.  10.  perianthium  polyphyllum,  a  many- 
leaved  perianth;  consisting  of  many  leaves,  or  more  than 
ten. 

b.  A  oNE-leaved  perianth  is  either,  1.  integrum,  en- 
tire; that  is  undivided,  as  in  Genipa  and  Olax.  2.  bifi- 
dum,  two-cleft;  cut  into  two  segments  or  divisions,  as 
in  Tuberous  Moschatel,  Purslane,  Sec.  3.  trifidum, 
three-cleft;  cut  into  three  segments,  or  divisions;  as  in 
Hermannia  and  Cliffortia.  4.  tetrajidum,  four-cleft; 
cut  into  four  segments  or  divisions;  as  in  Galium,  and 
Elephant's  head.    5.  quinquejidum,  quinquefid,  or  five- 


110  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

cleft;  as  in  Tobacco,  and  the  greater  number  of  flowers 
that  are  furnished  with  a  calyx  of  one  leaf.  6.  sexfidum, 
six-cleft,  or  cut  into  six  segments;  as  in  Ginora  ame- 
ricana.  7.  octofidum,  eight-cleft;  as  in  Tormentil.  8. 
decemfidum,  ten-cleft;  as  in  Cinquefoil,  and  Herb-Ben- 
net:  and,  9.  duodecemfidum,  twelve-cleft;  as  in  Purple 
Loosestrife,  and  Water- Purslane. 

c.  In  respect  to  figure,  a  perianth  is  either,  1.  tubu- 
losum,  tubular;  or  running  in  the  form  of  a  tube.  2.  pa- 
tens, spreading.  3.  reflexum,  reflex,  or  bent  back;  as  in 
Asclepias,  and  Leontodon.  4.  inflatum,  inflated,  hol- 
low, or  puffed  up  like  a  bladder;  as  in  Physalis,  called 
Ground-Cherry.  5.  globosum,  globose,  or  globular.  6. 
clavatum,  club-shaped;  as  in  Silene.  7.  erectum,  erect 
or  upright. 

d.  In  regard  to  the  proportion  which  it  bears  to  the 
corolla,  the  perianth  is,  1.  abbreviatum,  abbreviated,  or 
shorter  than  the  tube  of  the  corolla;  as  in  Tobacco*, 
and  most  other  plants.  2.  longum,  long;  longer  than  the 
tube  of  the  corolla.  3.  mediocre,  middle-sized;  about 
the  length  of  the  tube  of  the  corolla. 

e.  At  its  top,  the  perianth  is,  1.  obtusum,  obtuse. 
2.  acutum,  acute.  3.  spinosum,  spinous  or  thorny.  4. 
aculeatum,  prickly.  5.  acuminatum,  acuminate. 

f.  The  perianth  is,  1.  tequale,  equal,  having  all  the 
segments  of  the  same  size.  2.  inaquale,  unequal;  when 
some  of  the  segments  are  smaller  than  others.  3.  labia- 
tum,  lipped;  when  the  segments  are  irregular,  and 
formed  into  two  lips. 

*  See  Plate  XI.  Fig.  1. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  1 1 1 

g.  The  perianth,  with  respect  to  its  margin,  is,  1. 
integer rimum,  very  entire.  2.  serratum,  serrated.  3. 
ciliatum,  ciliate. 

i>.  The  perianth  has  received  a  variety  of  names, 
according  to  its  surface.  But  these  names  have  already 
been  explained,  in  treating  of  the  terminology  of  leaves*. 

i.  The  situation  of  the  perianth,  with  respect  to  the 
germen,  is,  1.  superum,  superior;  when  the  germen  is 
under  the  lower  part  of  the  perianth.  2.  inferum,  in- 
ferior; when  the  germ  is  above  the  base  of  the  perianth. 

k.  In  respect  to  its  duration,  the  perianth  is  either, 
1.  caducum,  caducous,  or  falling  off  before  the  complete 
opening  of  the  flower;  as  in  the  Poppy  and  the  Barren- 
wort.  2.  deciduum,  deciduous,  or  falling  off  with  the 
flower,  that  is  the  petals,  the  stamens,  and  the  style;  as 
in  Berberry  and  the  Cross-shaped  flowers.  3.  persistens, 
permanent;  or  continuing  until  the  fruit  has  attained  to 
maturity;  as  in  the  lip  and  masqued flowers,  and  several 
others. 

/.  1.  In  respect  to  its  composition,  the  calyx  sometimes 
consists  of  a  number  of  leaves,  which  are  laid  over  each 
other,  like  tiles,  or  scales.  This  is  the perianthium  im- 
bricatum,  or  imbricate  calyx.  Hawk-weed,  Sow-This- 
tle, and  many  other  Syngenesious  plants,  furnish  us  with 
beautiful  instances  of  this  species  of  calyxf.  2.  Some- 
times, the  scales  of  the  calyx  spread  wide,  and  are  diffu- 

*  See  pages  33,  34. 

t  See  the  Plate  of  Silphium  terebinth inaceum. 


112  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

sed  on  all  sides,  and  not  closely  laid  over  each  other,  as 
in  the  preceding  species.  This  last  is  the  peri anthium 
squarrosum,  or  squarrose  calyx;  of  which  we  have  ex- 
amples in  Thistle,  Onopordum,  Conyza,  &c*.  3.  In 
some  plants,  as  in  the  Pink,  Coreopsis,  and  others,  the 
base  of  the  calyx,  which  is  simple,  is  surrounded,  exter- 
nally, by  a  series  of  distinct  leaves,  which  are  shorter 
than  its  own.  To  this  species  of  calyx,  Linnaeus  has 
given  the  name  of  calyx  ductus,  and  Vaillant,  calyx  ca- 
lyculatus,  an  increased  calyx,  caliculate,  or  calycled 
calyx.  4.  The  peri anthium  scariosum,  or  scariose  peri- 
anth, is  a  species  of  calyx,  which  is  tough,  thin  and  se- 
mi-transparent; as  in  Statice  Armeria,or  Thrift,  Centau- 
rea  glastifolia,  &c.  5. The  peri  anthium  turbinatum, tur- 
binate,  or  top-shaped  perianth,  is  inversely  conical,  and 
shaped  like  a  boy's  top,  or  a  pear.  The  Grislea  secunda 
and  Memecylon  capitellatum  exhibit  instances  of  this 
species  of  perianth. 

m.  The  perianthium  is  either,  1.  proprium,  proper, 
that  is  belonging  to  one  flower;  or,  2.  commune,  com- 
mon, belonging  to  several  flowers,  collected  together. 

n.  Some  flowers,  such  as  the  Amaryllis,  the  Tulip,  the 
Lilyf,  and  many  others  of  the  liliaceous  plants;  also  the 
MedeolaJ,  are  said  to  be  destitute  of  the  perianth.  But 
I  shall  afterwards  have  occasion  to  observe,  that  what  the 
Swedish  naturalist  names,  in  these  flowers,  the  corolla  is 
deemed  the  calyx,  by  some  other  eminent  botanists. 

*  See  the  Plate  of  Helianthus  divaricatus. 
t  See  Plate  XIII.  Fig.  2. 
J  See  Plate  XIV. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  113 

In  the  greater  number  of  plants,  the  perianth  is  sin- 
gle. In  Morina,  Sarracenia*  and  some  of  the  plants  of 
the  Mallow-family,  as  Althaea,  Alcea,  Malva,  Lavatera, 
Gossypium,  Hibiscus,  Sec.  it  is  double. 

Several  circumstances  relative  to  the  perianth  are 
necessarily  delayed,  until  I  shall  have  entered  on  the  con- 
sideration of  the  corolla.  Of  the  real  and  supposed  uses 
of  the  perianth,  I  shall  treat,  after  having  finished  the 
history  of  the  various  species  of  calyx.  I  have  already 
mentioned  the  marks,  or  characters,  by  which  the  peri- 
anth may  be  distinguished  from  the  bractef. 

2.  The  second  species  of  calyx,  which  I  have  men- 
tioned, is  the  Iniiolucrum%.  This  is  called  by  Dr.  Mar- 
ty n,  Involucre.  It  is  chiefly  restricted  by  Linnaeus  to  the 
umbelliferous  flowers,  and  is  defined,  by  this  writer, 
a  calyx  remote  from  the  flower**. 

This  species  of  calyx  is  placed  below  the  common 
receptacle,  which,  in  the  umbelliferous  plants,  is  a  num- 
ber of  footstalks,  which  all  proceed  from  one  common 
point  or  centre,  and  rise  to  the  same  height.  Each  of  the 
footstalks  is  terminated  by  an  umbel,  which  is  similar,  in 
its  form  and  structure,  to  the  large  umbel,  and  is  com- 
monly, like  it,  furnished  with  an  involucre.  When  a  ca- 
lyx of  this  kind  is  placed  under  the  universal  umbel,  it 
is  called,  by  Linnaeus,  iwoolucrum  universale, an  univer- 
sal involucre.     When  it  is  placed  under  the  smaller  or 

*  See  Plate  I.  t  See  pages  7S,  79. 

t  Imolucrum,  from  involvo,  to  wrap  up. 
•*  "  Calyx  Umbi'llx  a  Hore  remotus." 

0. 


1 14  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

partial  umbel,  it  is  denominated  involucrum  partiale,  a 
partial  involucre.  This  is  sometimes  termed,  iwuolu- 
cellum,  or  involucret.  Dr  Withering  calls  it  the  Par- 
tial Fence. 

In  most  of  the  umbelliferous  flowers,  such  as  the 
Hemlock,  Fennel,  Anise,  and  in  other  plants,  not  strict- 
ly umbelliferous,  as  the  Cornus  florida,  or  Dogwood, 
and  other  species  of  this  genus,  there  is,  besides  the  two 
involucres,  a  proper  perianth,  which  is  situated  under 
each  of  the  florets,  or  smaller  flowers,  of  which  the  umbel 
is  composed. 

The  involucre  is  composed  of  one  or  more  leaves. 
When  composed  of  one,  it  is  denominated  iwoolucrum 
monophyllum,  a  one-leafed  involucre,  as  in  Bupleurum:v 
when  of  two  leaves,  involucrum  diphyllum,  a  two-leafed 
involucre,  as  in  Euphorbia:  when  of  three,  involucrum 
triphyllum,  as  in  Butomus  and  Alisma:  when  of  four, 
involucrum  te  trap  by  Hum-,  as  in  Cornus:  when  of  five, 
iwaolucrum  pentaphyllum\  as  in  Daucus;  and  when 
of  six,  irmolucrum  hexaphyllum\  as  in  Haemanthus. 

The  partial  involucre,  or  involucret,  consists  either 
of  two  leaves,  as  in  Artedia;  of  five,  as  in  Hare's  ear; 
or  of  many,  as  in  Bishop's- weed,  and  Fennel-Giant. 

The  involucrum  dimidiatum,  dimidiate,  or  half- 
leaved  involucre,  is  an  involucre  which  is  deficient  on 
one  side;  as  in  iEthusa,  or  Fools  Parsley. 

It  is  difficult  to  say,  in  what  very  essential  circum- 
stance the  involucre  of  those  plants  which  are  not  um- 
belliferous, such  as  Cornus,  or  Dogwood,  some  species 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  115 

of  Anemone,  &c.  differs  from  the  bractea,  or  bracte. 
It  would  seem,  indeed,  that  Linnzeus's  principal  reason 
for  separating  the  involucre  from  the  bracte  was  this, 
that  he  might  make  use  of  the  former  part  in  drawing 
his  generic  characters  of  the  umbelliferse. 

3.  The  Amentum*,  or  Ament,  called  also  Catkin, 
is  a  species  of  calyx,  which  consists  of  a  great  number 
of  chaffy  scales,  that  are  dispersed  along  a  slender  thread, 
or  receptacle.  On  account  of  its  supposed  resemblance 
to  a  cat's  tail  (though  it  bears  as  close  a  resemblance 
to  the  tails  of  many  other  animals  as  to  that  of  the  cat), 
it  has  received  one  of  its  English  names,  viz.  catkin. 
The  French  call  it  Chaton;  and  many  botanists  have  de- 
nominated it  Catulus.  The  term  amentum  was  used  by 
the  great  Tournefort,  before  it  was  employed  by  Lin- 
nasus.  The  term  is  perfectly  synonimous  to  the  terms 
julus  and  nucamentum,  which  are  employed  by  some 
botanists. 

LiNN,fl3us  defines  the  ament  to  be  a  composition  of 
a  calyx,  and  a  common  receptacle.  The  squama?,  or 
scales,  which  form  this  species  of  calyx,  are  mixed  al- 
ternately with  the  flowers,  and  resemble  the  chaff  in  an 
ear  of  cornf. 

The  ament  occurs  very  frequently  in  the  xxist  and 
xxi  id  classes  of  the  Sexual  System,  the  classes  Monoe- 
cia  and  Dioecia,  the  particular  characters  of  which  are 


*  The  term  amentum,  as  used  by  the  Roman  writers,  signifies  a  thong,  a  loop, 
a  strap,  or  lash,  to  hold  a  sling,  spear,  or  javelin  by. 

t  For  a  fine  representation  of  the  ament,  see  the  figure  of  Betula  populifolia 
in  this  work. 


116  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

afterwards  to  be  explained*.  In  this  place,  however,  it 
is  proper  to  observe,  that  in  the  first  mentioned  class, 
the  ament  supports  both  male  and  female  flowers,  on  the 
same  root,  or  individual.  This  is  the  case  in  the  Horn- 
beam, Walnuts,  and  Hickeries,  Chesnut,  Chinquepin, 
and  many  others.  In  the  class  Dioecia,  the  ament  sup- 
ports male  and  female  flowers,  on  distinct  roots,  or  indi- 
viduals. This  is  the  case  in  the  Willows,  Poplars,  and 
many  others. 

It  not  unfrequently  happens,  that  in  plants  of  the 
class  Monoecia,  the  male  and  female  flowers  are  mixed 
together,  or  situated  very  close  to  each  other;  whilst 
in  other  plants,  they  are  situated  at  a  considerable  dis- 
tance from  each  other;  but,  in  both  instances,  upon  the 
same  root,  or  individual. 

In  the  latter  case,  the  ament  frequently  supports  flow- 
ers of  one  sex,  and  a  calyx  of  the  perianth-kind  supports 
those  of  another  sex.  Thus,  in  the  Corylus,  or  Hazle, 
the  male  and  female  flowers  are  placed  remote  from  each 
other,  upon  the  same  root,  or  individual.  The  male 
flowers  form  an  ament,  whilst  the  females  are  inclosed 
in  a  perianth. 

In  the  class  Dioecia,  there  are  some  plants,  such  as 
Pistachia-nut,  Juniper-tree,  and  Ephedra,  or  Shrubby 
Horse-tail,  the  male  flowers  of  which  are  formed  into  an 
ament;  whilst  the  female  flowers  are  surrounded  with  a 
perianth. 

In  general,  those  flowers,  whether  they  be  male,  or 
female,  or  both,  which  are  supported  by  an  ament,  are 

*  See  Part  III. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  117 

destitute  of  the  petals,  or  painted  leaves.  The  Oak,  the 
Beech,  the  Hazel,  the  Cypress,  the  Pistachia-nut,  and 
several  others,  are  illustrative  of  this  observation. 

4.  The  Spatha*,  or  Spathe,  is  a  particular  species  of 
calyx,  which  opens,  or  bursts  longitudinally,  in  form  of 
a  sheath,  and  produces  a  stem  which  supports  one  or 
more  flowers. 

The  spatha  consists  either  of  one  piece,  as  in  the 
Narcissus,  Snow-Drop,  and  the  greater  number  of  plants 
that  are  furnished  with  this  species  of  calyx.  2.  of  two 
pieces,  as  in  the  Stratiotes,  or  Water- soldier;  or,  3.  of 
a  number  of  scales,  which  are  laid  over  each  other  like 
tiles;  as  in  Musa,  or  Plantain-tree.  The  first  species  of 
spathe  is  called  by  Linnaeus,  spatha  univahisy  a  one 
valved  spatha;  the  second,  spatha  bivahis,  a  two- 
valved  spathe;  and  the  last,  spatha  imbricata,  an  im? 
bricate  spathe. 

The  spatha  dimidiata,  or  halved  spathe,  is  a  spathe 
which  invests  the  fructification  only  on  the  inner  side. 

According  to  the  number  of  flowers,  which  it  pro- 
duces, the  spathe  has  received  different  names,  such  as 
1.  spatha  unijlora,  a  one-flowered  spathe.  2.  spatha  bi- 
Jiora,  a  two-flowered  spathe.  3.  spatha  multijlora,  a 
many -flowered  spathe. 

Linnaeus,  in  his  Fragments  of  a  Natural  Method^ 
has  established  an  order  of  plants,  to  which  he  has  given 


*  Spatha,  in  the  Latin  language,  has  various  significations,  such  as  a  two- 
handed,  or  bastard  sword,  a  spatula,  the  branch  of  a  Palm-tree,  &c.  &c. 


118  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

the  name  ofSpathacea.  This  order  embraces  a  number 
of  very  fine  vegetables,  some  of  which  have  already  been 
mentioned,  in  a  former  part  of  this  work*.  I  shall  here 
give  the  list  of  all  the  genera  that  were  known  to  Lin- 
naeus. They  are  all  furnished  with  that  particular  spe- 
cies of  calyx  which  I  have  been  considering.  Allium, 
Amaryllis,  Bulbocodium,  Colchicum,  Crinum,  Galan- 
thus,  Gethyllis,  Haemanthus,  Leucojum,  Tulbagia, 
Narcissus,  Pancratium.  The  Massonia  of  Thunberg, 
the  Cyrtanthus  of  the  younger  Linnaeus,  and  the  Aga- 
panthus  of  L'Heritier,  also  belong  to  this  order. 

Of  some  of  these  plants,  I  shall  take  further  notice 
in  speaking  of  the  plants  of  the  class  Hexandriaf.  At 
least  three  of  the  genera,  viz.  Allium,  Amaryllis,  and 
Pancratium,  are  indigenous  to  the  United- States. 

5.  The  Gluma:}:,  or  Glume,  is  a  species  of  calyx  re- 
stricted to  the  gramina,  or  grasses.  It  is  formed  of 
valves,  and  embraces  the  seed.  This  species  of  calyx, 
which  is  also  called  the  Husk  or  Chaff,  is  frequently  ter- 
minated by  a  stiff-pointed  prickle,  called  the  awn,  or 
beard. 

a.  The  glume  has  received  different  names,  according 
to  the  number  of  flowers  which  it  supports:  such  as,  1. 
gluma  uniflora,  a  one-flowered  glume.  2.  gluma  bi- 
flora,  a  two-flowered  glume.  3.  gluma  triflora,  a  three- 
flowered  glume.  4.  gluma  multifiora,2i  many-flowered 
glume. 

*  See  page  13. 
f  See  Part  III. 
\  Gluma,  from  glubo,  to  bark,  or  take  the  bark  from  a  tree. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  119 

b.  Various  appellations  have  also  been  given  to  the 
glume,  according  to  the  number  of  its  valves:  viz.  1. 
gluma  univahis,  an  univalvular,  or  one-valved  glume. 

2.  gluma  bhahis,  or  bivalvular  glume;  consisting  of 
two  scales.  This  is  the  most  common  species  of  glume. 

3.  gluma    multhahis,  a  multivalve,  or  many-valved 
glume;  having  more  than  two  scales,  or  valves. 

c.  The  glume  is,  1.  color ata,  coloured;  of  any  co- 
lour but  green,  which  is  the  general  colour  of  this  spe- 
cies of  calyx.  2.  glabra,  smooth.  3.  hispida,  hispid; 
shaggy  or  rough  with  hairs. 

d.  The  glume  is  either,  1.  aristata,  awned;  having 
an  awn.  2.  mutica,  awnless;  blunt,  or  without  any  point 
at  the  end. 

The  Arista,  or  awn,  is  a  slender  and  sharp  process, 
which  issues  from  the  glume  of  many  grasses.  In  En- 
glish, this  part  is  commonly  called  the  Beard.  But  this 
latter  term  ought  not  to  be  applied  to  the  awn,  since 
it  is  systematically  appropriated  to  a  particular  species 
of  pubescence*. 

To  the  awn,  as  well  as  to  the  glume  itself,  various 
names  have  been  applied,  such  as  the  following:  viz.  1. 
terminalis,  terminating,  fixed  to  the  top  of  the  glume. 
2.  dor  salts,  dorsal;  placed  on  the  back,  or  outside  of  the 
glume.  3.  recta,  straight;  issuing  from  the  glume  in  a 
perpendicular  direction.  4.  tortilis,  twisted,  or  coiled 
like  a  rope.  5.  recurvata,  recurved;  or  bent  back;  and, 
6.  geniculata,  geniculate;  or  bent  like  the  knee-joint. 

*  See  page  88 


120  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

Plants  that  are  furnished  with  the  species  of  stem 
which  we  have  called  the  culm*,  and  with  the  glume, 
in  place  of  a  calyx,  are  known  among  botanists  by  the 
name  of  Plants  Culmifera:,  or  Culmiferous  plants.  By 
Linnaeus  they  are  denominated  Gramina,  or  grasses. 
Wachendorff  calls  them  Glumosa.  The  greater  num- 
ber of  these  grasses  are  furnished  with  hermaphodite 
flowers,  and  belong  to  the  third  class  of  the  Sexual  Sys- 
tem. Some  important  species  belong  to  the  other  clas- 
ses, particularly  to  the  sixth  class,  where  we  find  the 
Oryza,  or  Rice;  and  to  the  twenty-first  class,  to  which 
belongs  the  Zea  Mays,  or  Indian-corn,  &c.  Some  spe- 
cies belong  to  the  twenty-third  class.  Haller  and 
Scheuchzer  affirm,  that  in  many  of  the  grasses,  they  have 
found  but  two  stamens.  This  is  denied  by  Linnaeus. 
But  the  authority  of  Haller  ought  not  to  be  questioned. 

Linnaeus,  perhaps  without  the  best  foundation, 
considered  the  grasses  as  the  most  simple  of  all  plants, 
in  regard  to  their  structure.  He  has  also  observed,  that 
very  few  of  these  vegetables  have  any  taste;  that  many  of 
them  are  insipid,  like  the  01era,or  pot-herbs;  that  a  very 
small  proportion  are  fragrant ;  and  that  none  of  them  are 
poisonous^. 

Many  of  the  grasses,  however,  have  a  very  agree- 
able sweetish  taste;  some  of  them  possess  an  astringent 
quality;  and  in  this  very  interesting  class,  there  are  some 
very  fragrant  plants,  such,  not  to  mention  others,  as  the 
Seneca- grass  of  the  United- States.  This  has  a  most 
agreeable  smell,  very  similar  to  that  of  the  pod  of  the 

*  See  page  24 — 26.  f  Horti  Ultrajectani  Index.  1747- 

\  Praelectiones  in  Ordines  Naturales  Plantarum.  p.  137. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  121 

Vanilla.  It  is  much  esteemed  by  the  Senecas,  and  other 
Indian  tribes.    From  the  Senecas,  it  receives  its  name. 

That  none  of  the  grasses  are  poisonous,  is  not  con- 
sonant to  the  observations  of  other  botanists.  The  Lo- 
lium  temulentum,  or  Darnel,  is  commonly  esteemed  a 
noxious  species  of  grass.  This  is  the  plant  which  Virgil, 
in  the  following  lines,  calls  infelix,  or  unhappy. 

"  Prima  Ceres  ferro  mortales  vertere  terram 
"  Instituit:  cum  jam  glandes  atque  arbuta  sacrse 
"  Deficerent  sylvse,  et  victum  Dodona  negaret. 
"  Mox  et  frumentis  labor  additus :  ut  mala  culmos 
M  Esset  robigo,  segnisque  horreret  in  arvis 
"  Carduus:  intereunt  segetes:  subit  aspera  sylva, 
"  Lappseque  tribulique  :  interque  nitentia  culta 
"  Infelix  Lolium,  et  steriles  dominantur  avenae." 

Georgic.  Lib.  I.  1.  147 — 154. 

"  First  pitying  Ceres  taught  the  famish'd  swain 
"  With  iron  shares  to  turn  the  stubborn  plain, 
u  What  time  the  arbute  fail'd,  and  fail'd  the  food 
"  Shower'd  from  the  oak  along  Dodona's  wood. 
"  New  cares  the  corn  pursu'd:  here  mildew  fed, 
"  There  thistles  rear'd  aloft  their  horrent  head : 
"  The  harvest  perishes  ;  with  prickles  crown'd, 
"  The  bur  and  caltrop  bristle  all  around : 
"  Their  baleful  growth  wild-oats  and  Darnel  rear, 
"  And  tow'r  in  triumph  o'er  the  golden  ear !" 

SOTHEBT. 

The  Darnel  is,  unquestionably,  a  noxious  plant. 
Actual  experiments,  however,  seem  to  show,  that  it 
is  much  less  poisonous  than  has  been  generally  imagi- 
ned. Manetti*  observes,  that  this  grain  may  be  eaten, 

•  Delle  specie  di\  erse  di  frumento  e  di  pane,  &c.&c.  Firenze:  1765. 

R 


122  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

with  impunity,  provided  there  be  mixed  with  its  meal,  a 
larger  proportion  of  the  meal  of  other  cere  alia, or  grains; 
and  the  compound  mass  be  subjected  to  a  second,  but 
gentler,  baking;  care,  at  the  same  time,  being  taken,  not 
to  eat  the  bread  too  warm.  He  applies  the  same  obser- 
vations to  the  Bromus  secalinus,  or  Field  Brome-grass. 

Upon  the  whole,  the  grasses  constitute  one  of  the 
most  natural  families  of  plants  with  which  we  are  ac- 
quainted. It  will  be  a  happy  era  in  Botany  (the  era  is, 
unquestionably,  remote),  when  the  labours  of  learned 
men  shall  have  disposed  of  all,  or  the  greater  number 
of  plants,  into  classes  or  orders  as  unexceptionable,  and 
as  agreeable  to  the  scheme  of  Nature,  as  is  the  order  of 
Gramina. 

6.  The  Calyptra*,  or  Calyptre,  is  said  to  be  the  ca- 
lyx of  the  mosses,  covering  the  anther,  or  male  organ, 
of  this  family  of  vegetables,  like  a  hood,  monks'  cawl, 
or  extinguisher.  But,  the  calyptre  cannot,  I  think,  be 
considered  as  a  real  calyx.  It  is,  moreover,  to  be  ob- 
served, that  the  part,  which  Linnaeus  calls  the  anther  of 
the  mosses,  is  known  to  be  the  capsule,  or  pericarp,  of 
these  vegetables. 

The  calyptre  is  either,  1.  recta>  straight;  equal  on 
every  side;  or,  2.  obliqua^  oblique,  bent  on  one  sidef. 

7.  The  Volva,  or  Ruffle^:,  as  Dr.  Withering  calls  it, 
is  defined  to  be  the  membranaceous  calyx  of  a  fungus 

*  Calyptra,  from  %ctXv7rlM,  io  cover. 

t  See  Plate  XXX.  \  See  Plate  XXX, 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  123 

plant.  It  is  also  called  the  Curtain.  This  ought  not  to  be 
considered  as  a  species  of  calyx,  and  is,  to  all  appear- 
ance, a  part  of  very  little  consequence  in  the  vegetable 
economy. 

The  volva  is  said  to  be,  1.  approximata,  approxi- 
mating; when  it  is  placed  upon  the  stem  of  the  fungus, 
near  the  cap.  2.  remota,  remote;  when  it  is  at  a  distance 
from  the  cap. 

In  order  to  convey  to  the  reader  some  idea  of  the  re- 
lative proportionlhat  obtains,  in  respect  of  number,  be- 
tween the  several  species  of  calyx  which  I  have  enume- 
rated, it  will  not  be  amiss  to  notice  the  following  obser- 
vations, by  Dr.  Alston,  of  Edinburgh.  In  the  year  1753, 
that  learned,  but  acrimonious  opposer  of  the  Sexual 
System  of  Linnaeus,  published  his  Tyrocinium  Botani- 
cum.  At  this  period,  the  Genera  Plant  arum  of  Lin- 
naeus, contained  only  1021  genera,  or  families  of  plants. 
Of  these,  according  to  the  professor,  673  have  for  their 
calyx  a  perianth:  72,  a  spathe:  75,  an  involucre:  29,  a 
glume:  18  an  ament:  and,  3,  acalyptre.  Of  the  volva, 
or  ruffle,  Alston  has  taken  no  notice;  nor  ought  he  to  be 
blamed  for  the  omission:  for  this  imaginary  calyx  is 
never  once  named  by  Linnaeus,  in  drawing  the  charac- 
ters of  the  genera  of  Fungous  plants,  which  were,  at  that 
time  enumerated,  in  the  Genera  Plant  arum.  Dr.  Alston 
also  remarked,  that  about  110  genera  were  entirely  des- 
titute of  the  calyx ;  that  25  have  both  a  perianth  and  an 
involucre;  and  a  few  both  a  perianth  and  a  spathe. 

Since  the  time  of  Alston,  the  accessions  to  Botany 
have  been  immense.  But  I  have  not  leisure  to  pursue 
the  subject  of  the  relative  proportion  of  the  different  spc- 


124  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

cies  of  calyx,  in  the  many  thousand  species  of  plants  that 
are  now  known.  I  shall  only  observe,  in  this  place,  that 
within  the  last  twenty  or  thirty  years,  Botany  has  been 
enriched  with  a  very  great  proportion  of  plants,  that  are 
furnished  with  two  of  the  species  of  calyx  ;  I  mean  the 
glume  and  the  calyptre. 

In  his  attempt  to  establish  the  analogy  between  the 
animal  and  the  vegetable  kingdoms,  Linnaeus  has  desig- 
nated the  calyx  by  the  name  of  thalamus  jloris,  or  the 
conjugal  bed*.  But  this  poetical  language  seems  but  ill 
adapted  to  the  grave  dignity  of  science.  I  may  add,  that 
the  Swedish  naturalist  would  have  used  a  less  exception- 
able phrase,  had  he  considered  the  perianth  merely,  as 
the  conjugal  bed.  With  no  manner  of  propriety  can  this 
term  be  extended  to  the  spatha,  the  volva,  and  calyptra. 

Dr.  Grew  has  observed,  that  the  design  of  the  em- 
palement,  or  perianth,  is  to  enclose,  secure,  and  support 
the  other  parts  of  the  flower;  to  be  their  security  before 
its  opening,  by  intercepting  all  extremities  of  weather; 
and  afterwards  to  be  their  support,  by  containing  all  the 
parts  in  their  due,  and  most  graceful  posture.  Hence, 
continues  this  celebrated  vegetable  physiologist,  we 
have  the  reason  why  the  calyx  is  frequently  various,  and 
sometimes  wanting.  Some  flowers  have  none, as  Tulips; 
because  having  a  fat  and  firm  leaf,  or  petal,  and  each  leaf 
likewise  standing  upon  a  broad  and  strong  basis,  they 
are  thus  sufficient  to  themselves.  Carnations,  on  the  con- 
trary, have  not  only  an  empalement,  but  that,  for  greater 
support.,  of  one  leaf:  for,  otherwise,  the  foot  of  each  leaf 


•  "  Cat  yx  e.-gocs'  Tbaldintts,  Corolla  Juleum,"  he.  PhUosophia  Bota- 
nic*, he.  p.  9-2- 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  125 

or  petal,  being  very  long  and  slender,  most  of  them 
would  be  apt  to  break  out  of  compass.  In  the  same  flow- 
er, the  top  of  the  empalement  is  indented,  that  the  in- 
dentments  may  protect  the  petals;  by  being  lapped  over 
them  before  their  expansion,  and  afterwards  may  sup- 
port  and  prop  them  up,  by  being  spread  under  them*. 

There  can,  perhaps,  be  little  doubt,  that  the  calyx, 
or  more  specifically  speaking,  the  perianth,  is  of  essen- 
tial use,  as  Dr.  Grew  asserts,  in  giving  security  or  pro- 
tection to  the  petals ,  and  other  parts  of  the  flower.  In 
many  plants,  the""  calyx  likewise  serves  the  office  of  a  pe- 
ricarp, or  seed-vessel;  as  in  the  plants  of  the  order  Gym- 
nospermia,  in  the  class  Didynamia.  But  these,  I  am 
inclined  to  think,  cannot  be  the  only  uses  of  the  perianth. 
It  is  probable,  that  this  part  is  concerned  in  the  great 
business  of  vegetable  respiration.  This  opinion,  which 
has  been  suggested  by  some  ingenious  writers,  will  ap- 
pear more  probable  from  the  view  which  will  afterwards 
be  given  of  the  uses  of  the  corolla,  and  the  near  relations 
of  this  part  of  the  fructification  to  the  perianth.  With 
respect  to  the  involucrum,  I  have  already  hinted  at  the 
affinity  which  this  species  of  calyx  bears  to  the  bractef. 
There  seems  to  be  as  good  reason  to  consider  the  invo- 
lucre of  many  plants,  a  pulmonary  system,  as  to  consi- 
der the  bracte  in  this  light  J. 

Of  Linnaeus's  opinion  concerning  the  origin  of  the 
calyx,  viz.  that  it  is  a  continuation  of  the  cortex,  or  outer 
bark,  of  the  vegetable,  I  shall  take  more  particular  notice 
afterwards. 

*  Grew,  as  quoted  by  Milne  f  See  pagei  114,  115 

4  See  page  80—82. 


126  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 


K  II. 


The  Corolla*,  which  some  English  writers  have  de- 
nominated the  Corol,  is  the  second  of  the  seven  parts  of 
fructification  already  enumerated.  Linnaeus  defines  it 
"  the  liber  or  inner  bark  of  the  plant  present  in  the  fruc- 
tificationf."  I  shall  afterwards  examine  the  propriety  of 
this  anatomical  definition. 

Some  writers  have  translated  the  term  corolla  by 
Blossom.  But  Dr.  Martyn  has  observed,  that  "  blossom 
"  has  a  more  contracted  signification  in  English,  being 
"  usually  applied  to  the  flowers  of  fruit-trees."  I  may 
add,  that  in  the  United- States,  the  term  blossom,  though 
it  is  by  no  means  exclusively  restricted  to  the  flowers  of 
fruit-trees,  is  generally  employed  to  denote  the  whole  of 
the  flower,  including  the  calyx  (at  least  the  perianth),  the 
corolla  properly  so  called,  and  the  male  and  female 
organs. 

The  petals  of  the  corolla  are  frequently  called,  both 
in  common  language,  and  in  the  writings  of  poets  and 
philosophers,  "  the  leaves  of  the  flower."  Thus  Thomp- 
son calls  the  petals  of  the  Helianthus,  or  Sun- flower, 
"yellow leaves."  "  and  all  yonder  stars  innume- 
"  rable,  with  their  dependencies,  says  an  ami- 
able philosopher^,  may  perhaps  compose  but  the 

LEAF  OF  A  FLOWER    IN    THE    CREATOR'S    GARDEN." 

•  Corolla,  in  the  Latin,  literally  signifies,  a  little  crown,  or  garland ;  a  chaplet, 
a  coronet. 

f  Liber  plants  in  Flore  prsesens."  Philosophia  Botanica,  &c.  p.  52. 

$  The  late  Mr.  David  Rittenhouse. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  127 

But  this  language  is  not  sufficiently  precise  and  spe- 
cific for  the  purpose  of  science.  To  avoid  all  ambiguity, 
I  shall  retain,  without  any  alteration,  the  Latin  word  Co- 
rolla, which  ought,  I  think,  to  be  preferred  to  Dr.  Dar- 
win's word  Corol.  The  segments  of  the  Corolla,  I  shall 
continue  to  call  Petals. 

The  corolla,  according  to  Linnaeus,  consists  of  two 
parts,  viz.  the  Petalum,  or  Petal,  and  the  Nectarium, 
or  Nectary.  The  last,  however,  is  not  always  a  part  of 
the  corolla;  and,  therefore,  at  present,  I  shall  take  no 
further  notice  of  it. 

It  is  said,  that,  in  general,  the  corolla  may  be  distin- 
guished from  the  perianth,  by  the  fineness  of  its  texture, 
and  the  gayness  of  its  colours;  the  perianth,  or  calyx, 
being  usually  rougher,  and  thicker,  and  of  a  green  co- 
lour. But  to  this  rule  there  are  many  exceptions.  Thus, 
in  Bartsia*,  the  perianth  is  coloured,  even  more  so  than 
the  corolla.  The  perianth  of  Fuschia  coccinea  is  a  bright 
scarlet:  the  corolla,  indigo  coloured.  The  perianth  of 
Dombeya  lappaceaf,  before  the  opening  of  the  flower,  is 
of  a  crimson  colour.  It  afterwards  becomes  green.  The 
corolla  is  of  a  brownish-violet  colour.  Moreover,  the 
corolla  of  Daphne  Laureola  is  green.  The  calyx  is 
painted.  The  perianth  and  the  corolla  of  Bignonia  ra- 
dicans  (Trumpet-flower),  are  both  of  the  same  colour. 
It  is  necessary,  then,  to  have  recourse  to  other  marks,  by 
which  these  two  parts  of  the  fructification  may  be  accu- 
rately discriminated  from  each  other. 

*  See  Plate  IV. 

f  See  a  figure  and  description  of  this  plant,  in  the  Stirpes  Navte  of  L'Heritiex. 

"Fuse.  II.  p.  33.  34.  pi.  xvix 


128  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

Linnaeus  makes  the  distinction  between  the  corolla 
and  the  perianth  to  consist  in  this  circumstance,  that 
the  former  has  its  segments,  or  petals,  disposed  alter- 
nately with  the  stamens;  whereas  the  perianth  has  its 
parts,  or  leaflets,  arranged  opposite  to  the  stamens. 
'*  This  rule,  says  Dr.  Milne,  "  determines  with  preci- 
"  sion,  in  such  flowers  as  want  either  the  calix,or  petals. 
"  Thus,  in  Pellitory,  Wild  Orach,  and  Nettle,  one  of  the 
44  two  covers  is  wanting.  Which  is  it?  Am  I  to  infer 
"  that  the  single  cover  present  is  the  corolla,  because  the 
"  finer  and  more  principal  part?  Nothing  would  be  more 
"  erroneous  than  such  an  inference;  many  flowers,  as 
"  Water- Purslane,  Ruellia,  and  Bell-flower,  which  ge- 
''  nerally  have  both  covers,  are  found  occasionally  to 
"  lose  the  petals,  but  never  the  calix.  How  then,  am  I 
44  to  proceed?  Apply  the  rule  mentioned  above.  I  do  so, 
"  and  finding  the  divisions  of  the  only  cover  that  is  pre- 
44  sent,  to  stand  opposite  to  the  stamina,  I  conclude  that 
44  cover  to  be  the  calix. 

44  That  the  rule  just  mentioned,  is  founded  in  the 
C4  natural  situation  of  the  parts  in  question,  will  appear, 
44  by  examining  any  number  of  complete  flowers  in  the 
44  fourth  and  fifth  classes  of  Linnseus's  Sexual  Method. 
44  In  the  former  of  these  classes,  the  number  four,  in 
M  the  other,  the  number  five,  is  predominant;  and,  as 
44  both  covers  are  present,  the  opposition  and  alterna- 
44  tion  alluded  to,  becomes  distinctly  visible*." 

Notwithstanding  what  has  been  said,  there  is, 
on  many  occasions,  a  great  difficulty  in  distinguishing 

*  Milne's  Botanical  Dictionary.  &c.  art.  Corolla.  See,  also,  Philosophia  Bo- 
tanica,  &c.  p.  57,  58.  $.  90. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  129 

the  corolla  from  the  perianth.  Linnaeus  himself  con- 
fesses, that  Nature  does  not  seem  to  have  placed  any 
absolute  limits  between  the  calyx  and  the  corolla*. 
This,  I  think,  must  be  admitted  as  a  well-founded  po- 
sition; especially  if  it  be  not  true,  that  the  calyx  is  exclu- 
sively derived  from  the  outer,  and  the  corolla  from  the 
inner,  bark. 

The  learned  Mr.  A.  L.  De  Jussieu,  defines  the  co- 
rolla to  be  that  cover  of  the  flower,  "  which  is  surround- 
"  ed  by  the  calyx,  or  very  rarely  naked;  is  a  continu- 
"  ation  of  the  liber,  or  inner  bark,  and  not  of  the  cor- 
"  tex  or  outer  bark,  of  the  peduncle;  is  not  permanent, 
"  but  commonly  falls  oft' with  the  stamens;  which  in- 
"  volves  or  crowns  the  fruit,  but  never  grows  fast  to  it; 
"  and  which  almost  always  has  its  segments,  or  divisions, 
M  ranged  alternately  with  the  stamens."  From  this  view 
of  the  subject,  the  painted  petals  of  the  Narcissus  are 
regarded  by  Jussieu,  as  a  true  perianth;  as,  indeed, 
Tournefortf  had  taught  a  long  time  ago;  and  by  the  same 
rule,  the  Hyacinth,  and  other  liliaceous  plants  very  near- 
ly allied  to  the  Narcissus,  are  furnished  with  a  perianth, 
but  are  destitute  of  the  corolla^:. 

Mr  .  Ada  n  son,  a  botanist  of  great  learning,  has  also 
observed,  that  in  the  liliaceous  plants,  what  is  called  by 
Linnaeus  the  corolla,  is,  in  reality,  a  perianth,  according 
to  the  very  principles  of  the  Swedish  naturalist. 

*  "  Limites  inter  Calycem  &.  Corollam  absolutos,  naturam  non  posuisse ; 
"  patet  ex  Daphnide,  ubi  connata  ambo,  &  margine  omnino  unita,  veiuti  folium 
Buxi."  Philosophia  Botanica,  Sec.  p.  58.  fy.  90. 

t  Isagoge  in  Rem  Herbariam.  p.  72. 

|  Genera  Plantarum  secundum  Ordines  Naturales  Disposita,  8cc.  Introductio. 
p.  xiil.  ParisiU  :  1789. 

S 


130  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

Linnaeus  has  not  only  acknowledged  the  difficulty 
of  distinguishing  the  calyx  from  the  corolla,  but  in  his 
different  works,  he  has  confounded  these  two  parts  with 
each  other.  Thus,  in  his  Genera  Plant  arum,  that  part 
which  he  names  the  corolla  of  Rhamnus,  he  denominates 
the  calyx  in  the  Systema  Vegetabilium.  Again,  in  his 
Genera,  he  calls  the  cover  of  Polygonum  a  calyx,  or  pe- 
rianth; but  in  the  Systema  Vegetabilium,  he  calls  it  the 
corolla.  Other  instances,  of  a  like  kind,  might  be  point- 
ed out.  I  may  add,  that  Linnaeus  calls  the  cover  of  Phy- 
tolacca*, the  corolla.  But  this  cover  is,  unquestionably, 
a  calyx,  if  any  regard  be  due  to  the  Linnaean  rule  of  the 
relative  disposition  of  the  stamens,  and  the  parts  of  the 
cover. 

Sensible  of  the  great  difficulty  which  not  unfre- 
quently  occurs  in  distinguishing  the  corolla  from  the 
calyx,  the  late  learned  Nat.  Jos.  De  Necker,  has  calledf 
both  the  corolla  and  the  calyx  by  one  name,  viz.  Peri- 
gynanda%,  a  name  derived  from  the  Greek,  and  signifies 
the  envelope,  the  cover,  or  wrapper  of  the  stamens,  and 
the  pistils.  Our  author  distinguishes  the  perigynanda, 
when  there  are  two  covers,  into  the  outer  and  the  inner. 
The  inner  answers  to  the  corolla,  and  the  outer  to  the 
calyx  of  Linnaeus. 

He d  wig,  who  is  generally  supposed  to  have  dispro- 
ved the  ideas  of  Linnaeus,  concerning  the  origin  of  the 
calyx  and  corolla,  from  the  outer  and  the  inner  bark  of 

•  See  Plate  XVII.  Fig.  4.  A.  B. 

f  In  his  Corollarium  ad  Philosophiam  Botanicam  Linnxi  spectans,  &c.  Sec. 
in  his  Phytozoologie  Philosophique,  &.c.  and  other  works. 

\  Perigynanda,  from  mfi,  around,  y«»»j,  a  woman,  and  «»np  a  man. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  131 

the  stem,  denotes  both  the  calyx  and  the  corolla,  by  the 
name  of  Perigonii/m*.  When  there  are  two  coverings 
(the  calyx  and  corolla  of  Linnaeus),  he  designates  one 
by  the  name  of  the  ?;7?fr?ztf/perigonium,and  the  other  by 
the  name  of  the  external  \)er\gomum.  When  there  are 
three  covers,  as  is  the  case  in  Morina,  several  malvace- 
ous  plants,  &c.  he  calls  the  third  one,  the  intermediate 
perigonium. 

I  have  said,  that  "the  corolla,  according  to  Lin- 
"  nseus,  consists  of  two  parts,  viz.  the  Pet  alum,  or  Pe- 
"  tal,  and  the  Nectarium,  or  Nectary." 

The  petal  constitutes  the  principal  part  of  the  co- 
rolla. It  surrounds  both  the  stamens  and  the  pistils,  or 
the  male  and  female  organs  of  generation.  It  consists  of 
one  or  more  pieces. 

According  to  the  number  of  its  petals,  the  corolla 
has  received  the  following  names.  1.  corolla  monopetala, 
one-petalled,  or  monopetalous,  consisting  of  only  one 
petal;  as  in  Convolvulusf ,  Tobaccof ,  and  many  others. 
2.  corolla  dipetala,  dipetalous,  or  two-petalled;  as 
in  Commelina**,  Circaea,  and  others.  3.  corolla  tripe- 
tala,  three-petalled;  consisting  of  three  distinct  petals; 
as  in  Sagittariaft>  Alisma,  &c.  4.  corolla  tetrapctala, 
tetrapetalous,  or  four-petalled;  as  in  the  plants  of  the 
class  Tetradynamia.  5.  corolla  pentapctala,  or  five- 
petalled;  consisting  of  five  distinct  petals;  as  in  Marsh- 

*  Perigonium,  from  Ti£i,  aboiU,  and  yavoj,  seed. 

t  See  Plate  XI.  Fig.  3.  J  See  Plate  XI.  Fig.  1. 

**  See  Plate  X.  Fig.  1 .  ft  See  Plate  XVIII. 


152  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

Marygold,  the  Umbellata,  he.  6.  corolla  hexapeta- 
lay  hexapetalous;  or  six-petalled;  consisting  of  six 
petals;  as  in  Lily,  Tulip,  Amaryllis,  Pancratium,  &c. 
7.  corolla  polypetala,  polypetalous,  consisting  of  many 
petals.  (This  term  is  sometimes  used  by  Linnaeus,  in 
opposition  to  the  term  monopetalous.  By  many  writers, 
it  has  been  put  for  a  corolla  of  more  than  six  petals). 
Of  the  polypetalous  plants,  some  have  nine  petals,  as  the 
Liriodendron;  and  some  an  indefinite  number,  as  Wa- 
ter-Lily, and  Globe-Ranunculus. 

When  the  corolla  consists  of  only  one  piece,  as  in 
the  monopetalous  corolla,  the  whole  corolla,  in  the  Lin- 
naean  sense  of  the  word,  is  a  petal. 

A  flower  which  has  no  petals,  or  corolla,  is  termed 
by  the  botanists,  apetalus,  or  apetalusflos,  an  apetalous 
flower.  This  term  was  adopted  by  Linnaeus,  from  Tour- 
nefort.  It  is  equivalent  to  the  term  imperftctus,  or  im- 
perfect, of  Rivinus,  Knaut,  and  Pontedera:  the  term 
stamineus  of  Ray;  the  incompletus  of  Vaillant;  and  the 
capillaceus  of  some  other  botanists. 

The  existence  of  apetalous  flowers  has  been  denied 
by  Christian  KnautJ.  But  we  well  know,  that  there  are 
not  a  few  vegetables  whose  flowers  are  entirely  destitute 
of  the  petals.  If  the  notions  of  Mr.  Jussieu  and  some 
other  botanists,  concerning  the  calyx  and  the  corolla,  be 
admitted  as  just,  it  must  then  be  granted,  that  very 
many  plants,  and  some  of  them  the  most  beautiful  with 
which  we  are  acquainted,  are  strictly,  apetalous. 

\  In  his  Methodus  Phmarum  genuina.  Hal!?e :  1716- 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  133 

The  number  of  petals  of  which  a  corolla  consists  is 
determined  from  the  base  of  the  corolla.  The  rule  of 
Rivinus  is  to  reckon  as  many  petals,  as  the  parts  into 
which  the  flower,  when  it  falls,  resolves  itself.  This  cri- 
terion will,  in  most  instances,  be  found  very  exact.  But, 
in  some  instances,  it  is  found  to  be  insufficient  for  our 
purpose.  For  the  corolla  of  the  Vaccinium  Oxycoccos, 
or  Cranberry,  is  unquestionably,  only  one-petalled;  but 
this  flower,  upon  falling,  resolves  itself  into  four  distinct 
leaves.  From  the  difficulty  that  occurs,  in  some  instan- 
ces of  determining,  whether  a  corolla  consists  of  one  or 
more  petals,  we  find  that  Tournefort  reckons  the  corolla 
of  the  Mallow-tribe  of  plants,  monopetalous;  whilst 
Linnaeus  considers  it  as  pentapetalous. 

a.  Different  names  are  assigned  to  different  parts  of 
the  corolla.  Such  are  the  following.  1.  The  tubus,  or 
tube,  is  the  lower  part  of  a  monopetalous  corolla ;  as  in  To- 
bacco, &c.  2.  The  unguis,  or  claw,  is  the  lower  part  of  a 
many-petalled  corolla,  by  which  it  is  fixed  to  the  recep- 
tacle; as  in  Lily,  &c.  3.  The  limbus,  or  limb,  is  the 
border,  or  upper  dilated  part,  of  a  monopetalous  corolla. 
4.  The  lamina,  or  border,  the  upper,  spreading  part  of  a 
many-petalled  corolla.  (Linnaeus  has  not  uniformly  used 
the  term  limbus,  in  one  sense:  for  he  sometimes  em- 
ploys it  for  the  dilated  part  of  a  many-petalled  corolla). 

b.  In  regard  to  its  divisions,  the  corolla  is,  1.  bifida, 
bifid,  or  two-cleft;  when  each  petal  is  divided  into  two; 
as  in  Chickweed,and  Enchanters-Nightshade^  2.  trifida, 
three-cleft;  wrhen  each  petal  is  divided  into  three  parts;  as 
inHolosteum,andHypecoum.  3. tetrafida, four-cleft;  as 
in  Cucubalus*.  4.  quinquefida,  nvc-cleft;  as  in  Basard- 

*  See  Plate  XVII.  Fig.  3. 


134  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

Rocket.  5.  multijida,  many- cleft;  as  in  Convolvulus 
Soldanella.  (This  term  is  equivalent  to  the  term  laci- 
niatus  flos  of  Tournefort.)  6.  bipartita,  two-parted; 
simple,  but  divided  almost  down  to  the  base.  7.  tripar- 
tita, three-parted,  simple,  but  divided  into  three  parts, 
almost  down  to  the  base.  8.  laciniata,  laciniated;  divi- 
ded into  segments. 

c.  In  respect  to  equality,  the  corolla  is,  1.  regular  is, 
regular;  equal  in  the  figure,  size,  and  proportion  of  the 
parts;  as  in  Privet,  Lilac,  Jasmin,  &c.  2.  irregularis, 
irregular;  when  the  parts  of  the  limb  differ  in  figure, 
magnitude,  or  proportion;  as  in  Aconite,  Lupin,  and 
Dead-Nettie.  3.  intequalis,  unequal;  having  the  parts 
corresponding,  not  in  size,  but  in  proportion  ;  as  in  Bu- 
tomus  umbellatus*.  4.  cequalis,  equal;  when  the  petals 
are  of  the  same  size  and  figure;  as  in  Primula,  Limo- 
sella,  &c.  (There  does  not  appear  to  be  any  essential  dif- 
ference between  the  ternis  tequalis  and  regularis:  and, 
perhaps,  as  Dr.  Martyn  observes,  the  term  regular  ex- 
presses the  idea  better).  5.  difformis,  difform,  anoma- 
lous, or  irregular;  when  the  petals,  or  their  segments, 
are  of  different  forms. 

d.  In  respect  to  figure,  the  corolla  is,  1.  globosa,  glo- 
bose, globular,  or  spherical;  round  like  a  ball;  as  in 
Trollius,  or  Globe-Ranunculus.  2.  campanulata,  cam- 
panulate,  bell-shaped,  or  bell-formed;  swelling  or  bel- 
lying out,  without  any  tube;  as  in  the  Campanula, 
Convolvulusf,  Atropa,  and  many  others.  (This  term  is, 

*  See  Plate  XVI.  Fig.  3.   According  to  Jussieu,  the  cover  of  Butomusis  a 
Cftlyx,  or  perianth. 

\  See  Plate  XI.  Fig.  3. 


// 


ELEiMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  135 

in  strict  propriety,  applied  to  the  monopetalous  corol- 
las only:  yet,  sometimes,  it  is  extended  also  to  flow 
that  are  polypetalous.  3.  infundibuliformis,  funnel-sha- 
ped; having  a  conical  border  rising  from  a  tube;  as  in 
Lithospcrmum,  Stramonium,  Henbane,  Tobacco*,  and 
many  others.  4.  hypocrateriformis,  salver-shaped;  ri- 
sing from  a  tube  with  a  flat  border;  as  in  some  of  the 
plants  called  Asperifolics;  in  Diapensia,  Aretia,  Andro- 
sace,  Hottonia,  Phlox,  Samolus,  &c.  5.  rotata,  wheel- 
shaped;  spreading  flat  without  any  tube;  as  in  Borago, 
Veronicaf,  PhysalisJ,  Verbascum,  and  others.  6.  cya- 
f/6zybrmz\?,  cyathiform,  glass  -shaped,  or  cup-shaped;  cy- 
lindrical, but  widening  a  little  at  the  top.  7.  urceolata, 
pitcher-shaped;  bellying-out  like  a  pitcher.  8.  ringens, 
ringent,  irregular,  gaping  with  two  distinct  lips;  a  one- 
petalled  corolla,  the  border  of  which  is  commonly  di- 
vided into  two  parts,  to  which  the  botanists  have  given 
the  names  of  upper  and  lower  lip.  The  former  is  some- 
times called  the  galea,  or  helmet:  the  latter,  the  barb  a, 
or  beard.  The  opening  between  the  two  lips  is  named 
rictus,  or  the  gap:  the  opening  of  the  tube,  faux,  the 
throat  or  jaws:  the  prominent  swelling  in  the  throat, 
palatum,  or  the  palate;  and  the  upper  part  of  the  tube, 
collum,  or  the  neck.  Most  of  the  flowers  in  the  xivth 
class  of  the  Sexual  System,  Didynamia,  are  furnished 
with  this  species  of  corolla**.  9.personata,  personate, 
or  masked :  said,  by  Linnaeus,  to  be  a  species  of  ringent 
corolla,  but  closed  between  the  lips  by  the  palate.  "  But 
"  surely  (as  Dr.  Marty n  observes),  ringent,  or  gaping 

•  See  Plate  XI.  Fig.  1. 
t  See  Plate  IX.  Fig  2. 
\  See  Plate  XI.  Fig.  2. 
"•  See  Plate  XIX.  Fig.  1. 


156  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

tk  with  the  lips  closed,  is  a  contradiction  in  terms.  It 
"  would  be  better  to  define  it,  a  species  of  labiate  co- 
\4  rolla,  which  has  the  lip  closed."  10.  cruciata  or  cruci- 
formis,  cruciform  or  cross-shaped;  consisting  of  four 
equal  petals,  which  spread  out  in  form  of  a  cross.  This 
species  of  corolla  is  exemplified  in  most  of  the  plants  of 
Linnaeus's  xvth  class,  Tetr  adynamia* .  11.  papiliona- 
cea,  papilionaceous,  or  Butterfly- shaped;  irregular,  and 
most  commonly  consisting  of  four  petals,  to  which  Lin- 
naeus has  given  three  different  names :  viz.  the  carina,the 
°u  ex  ilium,  and  the  alae.  The  carina,  or  keel,  is  the 
lower  petal,  which  is  shaped  somewhat  like  a  boat;  the 
vexillum,  or  standard,  is  the  upper  petal,  which  spreads 
and  rises  upwards;  and  the  alae,  or  wings,  are  the  two 
lateral  petals,  which  stand  singly,  being  separated  by 
the  keel.  12.  rosacea,  rosaceous,  or  rose-like;  consist- 
ing of  four  or  more  regular  petals,  which  are  inserted 
into  the  receptacle,  by  a  short  and  broad  claw;  as  in  the 
Wild- Rose.  (To  plants  which  are  furnished  with  this 
species  of  corolla,  Tournefort  has  given  the  name  of 
Rosacei.  They  constitute  his  sixth  class.)  13.  undulata, 
waved  or  undulated ;  the  surface  rising  and  falling  in 
waves,  or  obtusely,  not  in  angles ;  as  in  Gloriosa  super- 
ba,  and  Gloriosa  simplex.  14.  plicata  plaited;  or  fold- 
ed like  a  fan;  as  in  Convolvulus.  15.  rcuoluta,  revolute, 
rolled  back  or  downwards;  having  the  petals  rolled  back; 
as  in  Asparagus,  Medeolaf,  and  LiliumJ.  16.  torta, 
twisted;  as  in  Nerium,  Asclepias,  Vinca,  &c. 

e.  In  respect  to  its  margin,  the  corolla  is,  1.  crenata, 
crenate;  as  in  Linum,  Dianthus  chinensis,  &c.  2.  ser- 

*  See  Plate  XIX.  Fig.  3.  f  See  Plate  XIV. 

$  See  Plate  XIII.  Fig.  2. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  137 

rata, serrate;  as  inTilia,  Alisma,  &c.  3.  ciliata,  ciliate; 
as  in  Rue,  Menyanthes,  Tropoeolum,  Gentiana  ciliata, 
&c.  (These  terms  have  already  been  explained,  under 
the  head  of  the  nomenclature  of  leaves)*. 

f.  In  respect  to  its  surface,  the  corolla  is,  1.  mllosa, 
villose.  2.  tomentosa,  tomentose.  3.  sericea,  silky,  or 
covered  with  very  soft  hairs,  pressed  close  to  the  sur- 
face. 4.  pilosa,  hairy.  5.  barb  at  a,  bearded;  as  in  Dian- 
thus  barbatus.  6.imberbis,  beardless:  opposed  to  beard- 
ed. 7.  cristata,  crested;  furnished  with  an  appendage, 
like  a  crest  or  tuft;  as  in  Polygala,  Iris  cristata,  &c. 

g.  In  respect  to  its  proportion,  the  corolla  is,  1.  longis- 
sima,  very  long;  several  times  longer  than  the  calyx;  as 
in  Lobelia  longiflora,  &c.  2.  bremssima,  very  short;  not 
as  long  as  the  calyx;  as  in  Sagina  procumbens,  &c. 

h.  In  respect  to  its  situation,  the  corolla  is,  1.  su- 
per a,  superior;  having  its  receptacle  above  the  germ. 
2.  infer  a,  inferior;  having  its  receptacle  below  the  germ. 

i.  In  point  of  duration,  the  corolla  is,  1.  caduca,  ca- 
ducous; continuing  only  until  the  expansion  of  the  flow- 
er, and  then  falling  off;  as  in  Herb-Christopher,  and 
Meadow-Rue.  2.  decidua,  deciduous;  when  the  petals 
fall  off  with  the  rest  of  the  flower.  3.  persistens,  perma- 
nent; continuing  until  the  fruit  has  attained  to  maturity; 
as  in  Water-Lily.  4.  marcescens,  withering  or  shrivel- 
ling; withering  on  the  stalk,  without  dropping;  as  in 
Campanula,  Orchis,  Cucumber,  Gourd,  Bryony,  &c. 

*  See  pages  32,  33. 


138  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

In  some  plants,  even  of  the  same  species,  the  corolla 
is  very  caducous,  or  transitory;  in  others,  it  is  more  per- 
manent. We  are  not  acquainted  with  all  the  circumstan- 
stances  which  thus  essentially  vary  the  longevity  of  the 
corolla.  It  is,  however,  a  well  known  fact,  that  double- 
flowers,  in  general,  last  much  longer  than  single  ones. 
Thus,  in  single  Poppies,  the  corolla  falls  off  in  a  few 
hours,  whilst  in  double  ones  it  lasts  for  several  days*. 
The  double  blossoms  of  the  Cherry  last  much  longer 
than  the  single  blossoms  of  the  same  tree.  It  would, 
indeed,  seem  to  be  a  general  law  of  nature,  that  a  longer 
duration  of  life  is  conceded  to  those  vegetables,  as  well 
as  animals,  which  are  prohibited  by  their  structure,  or 
other  circumstances,  from  the  function  of  generation. 
In  double  blossoms,  the  organs  of  generation  being  obli- 
terated, impregnation  cannot  take  place;  but  in  single 
blossoms,  the  parts  being  perfect,  there  is  no  obstacle 
to  the  generative  act.  In  like  manner,  we  find  that  the 
mule,  which  (in  general  at  least)  is  not  fertile,  lives  longer 
than  the  horse  or  the  ass,  by  which  he  is  begotten;  and 
it  has,  long  since,  been  observed,  that  the  term  of  life  of 
the  locust  and  other  species  of  insects,  as  well  as  of  va- 
rious species  of  birds,  may  be  very  considerably  protrac- 
ted, by  prohibiting  them  from  all  intercourse  with  their 
respective  females. 

k.  In  respect  to  its  composition, the  corolla  is,  1.  com- 
posita,  compound;  consisting  of  several  florets,  included 
within  a  common  perianth,  and  sitting  upon  a  common 
receptacle;  as  in  the  plants  of  the  class  Syngenesia.  2. 
ligulata,  ligulate,  or  strap-shaped;  when  the  florets 
have  their  corollets  flat,  spreading  out  towards  the  end, 
0 

*  Dr.  James  Edward  Smith.  £f  \ 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  139 

with  the  base  only  tubular;  as  in  the  plants  of  the  first 
order  of  Syngenesia*.  3.  tubulata,  tubulous;  when  all 
the  corollets  of  the  florets  are  tubular,  and  nearly  equal. 
4.  radiata,  radiate,  consisting  of  a  disk,  in  which  the 
corollets  or  florets  are  tubular  and  also  regular;  and 
of  a  ray,  in  which  the  florets  are  irregular,  and  common- 
ly ligulate. 

/.  In  regard  to  its  colour,  the  corolla  of  different  vege- 
tables assumes  almost  every  known  colour. 

Linn-AEus,  ever  in  pursuit  of  analogies,  has  distin- 
guished the  corolla  by  the  name  oiauleum  floris,  or  pa- 
lace in  which  the  nuptials  of  the  plant  are  celebrated. 
But  this  species  of  language  teaches  us  nothing  very  de- 
terminate concerning  the  uses  of  the  corolla.  Our  author 
has  also  observed,  that  the  corolla  serves  as  wings  to  waft 
the  flower  about,  and  thus  to  assist  in  the  business  of 
impregnation. 

It  seems  highly  probable,  that  one  use,  among 
others,  of  the  corolla,  is  that  of  sheltering  and  defending 
the  stamens  and  other  important  parts,  which  are  situa- 
ted within  this  beautiful  structure.  But  it  is  by  no  means 
probable,  that  this  is  the  only  use  of  the  corolla. 

Sprengel  observes,  that  the  corolla  is  "an  attrac- 
"  tion  to  insects,  and  a  convenient  seat  or  bed  for  them 
"  while  extracting  the  honey,  and  promoting  the  im- 
"  pregnation  of  the  flowerf."  But  who  will  seriously 
believe,  that  Nature  has  exerted  so  much  care  and  skill 
in  the  construction  of  the  beautiful  petals  of  flowers, 

*  See  Plate  XXII. 

t  Sprengel,  as  quoted  by  Dr.  J.  E.  Smith. 


140  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

merely  to  form  a  palace  for  insects,  whilst  they  are  aid- 
ing in  a  work,  which,  in  innumerable  instances,  is  fully 
accomplished  without  the  least  of  insectile  aid? 

Dr.  Darwin  is  of  opinion,  that  the  corolla  forms  a 
pulmonary  system  "  totally  independent  of  the  green 
"  foliage,"  and  that  this  respiratory  system  belongs  to 
the  sexual  or  amatorial  parts  of  the  fructification  only! 
He  asserts,  that  each  petal  is  furnished  with  an  artery, 
"  which  conveys  the  vegetable  blood  to  its  extremities, 
"  exposing  it  to  the  light  and  air  under  a  delicate  moist 
M  membrane,  covering  the  internal  surface  of  the  petal, 
"  where  it  often  changes  its  colour,  as  is  beautifully 
u  seen  in  some  party-coloured  Poppies,  though  it  is 
"  probable  (he  observes)  that  some  of  the  iridescent 
"  colours  of  flowers  may  be  owing  to  the  different  de- 
"  grees  of  tenuity  of  the  exterior  membrane  of  the  pe- 
"  tal,  refracting  the  light  like  soap-bubbles. 

"  The  vegetable  blood  (continues  our  learned  au- 
"  thor)  is  then  collected  at  the  corol-arteries,  and  re- 
"  turned  by  correspondent  veins,  exactly  as  in  the  green 
"  foliage,  for  the  sustenance  of  the  anthers,  and  stigmas, 
"  and  for  the  important  secretions  of  honey,  wax,  essen- 
"  tial  oil,  and  the  prolific  dust  of  the  anthers,  and  thus 
"  constitutes  a  pulmonary  organ." 

In  support  of  this  opinion,  Dr.  Darwin  has  adduced 
several  very  ingenious  arguments,  for  the  full  exposition 
of  which,  I  must  refer  to  his  Phytologia*,  a  work  re- 
plete with  learning,  and  marked,  in  every  page,  with  the 
genius  of  the  British  Lucretius.     It  must  be  con* 

*  Sect.  IV.  .  « 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  141 

fessed,  however,  that  much  of  mere  hypothesis  is  attach- 
ed to  Darwin's  observations,  concerning  the  uses  of  the 
parts  of  vegetables.  He  has  too  frequently  assumed  as 
points  completely  established,  points  that  are  still  invol- 
ved in  great  uncertainty.  Thus,  a  fundamental  part  of 
this  author's  reasoning  concerning  the  use  of  the  corolla 
is  the  assumption  of  the  fact,  that  in  this  part  of  the  fruc- 
tification, there  is  a  two-fold  system  of  vessels,  corres- 
ponding to  the  pulmonary  artery  and  veins  of  animals. 
Now,  many  experiments,  which  I  have  made,  compel 
me  to  entertain  some  doubts  relative  to  the  existence  of 
an  arterial  and  venal  system  in  the  corolla.  What  I  have 
already  said  concerning  the  leaves*,  may,  with  equal 
propriety,  be  extended  to  the  corolla.  I  have  often  suc- 
ceeded in  colouring  this  part  of  the  plant,  with  the  juice 
of  the  Phytolacca,  and  other  colouring  matters :  but  I 
have  not  been  able  to  convince  myself,  that  the  colour- 
ing matter  is  exclusively  carried,  in  the  first  instance, 
along  the  upper  surface  of  the  corolla;  and  I  never  could 
decidedly  perceive,  that  it  was  returned  by  a  venous 
system,  on  the  under  side  of  the  petals.  I  do  not  mean, 
however,  to  deny  the  existence  of  arteries  and  veins  in 
the  corolla.  I  wish  to  proceed  with  cauticn. 

Many  experiments  remain  to  be  made,  before  the 
uses  of  the  corolla  can  be  completely  demonstrated,  to 
the  satisfaction  of  naturalists  and  philosophers.  I  am 
disposed,  in  the  meanwhile,  to  believe,  that  both  this 
part  and  the  calyx  are  essentially  concerned  in  the  office 
of  vegetable  respiration.  Indeed,  as  nature  does  not 
seem  to  have  drawn  any  certain  line  of  discrimination 
between  the  calyx  and  the  corolla,  it  must,  perhaps,  be 

$ 

*  See  pages  57 — 59. 


142  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

admitted,  that  both  of  these  parts  perform  the  same 
office,  whatever  that  office  may  be. 

I  have  already  particularly  mentioned  the  curious 
fact  of  the  longer  duration  of  the  double  flowers,  than 
of  single  flowers,  in  the  same  species  of  plant.  The  in- 
genious Dr.  Smith  thinks  it  probable,  that  this  circum- 
stance, "combined  with  other  observations," may  "lead 
"  to  a  discovery  of  the  real  use  of  the  corolla  of  plants, 
"  and  the  share  it  has  in  the  impregnation*."  I  shall 
not  pretend  to  determine,  how  far  there  may  be  a  solid 
foundation  for  this  idea.  But  the  fact  itself  is  very  inte- 
resting, and  will  be  again  reverted  to,  in  the  sections  on 
vegetable  life  and  generation! . 

The  importance  of  the  corolla,  as  an  organ  essenti- 
ally concerned  in  the  business  of  respiration,  or  in  that 
of  impregnation,  is,  perhaps,  somewhat  diminished  by 
the  following  fact.  Many  plants,  in  certain  situations 
of  climate,  heat,  &c.  are  observed  to  drop  all,  or  the 
greater  number  of,  their  petals ;  and  yet  their  seeds  ripen, 
and  come  to  full  perfection.  Such  flowers  are  called 
mutilated  flowers  (miitilus  flosj ,  and  their  mutilation 
has  generally  been  ascribed  to  the  agency  of  heat.  This 
is,  doubtless,  a  frequent  cause  of  the  falling  of  the  petals 
of  plants.  But  it  cannot  be  the  only  cause:  for  some  of 
the  plants  which  are  natives  of  warm  and  temperate  cli- 
mates, are  observed  to  drop  their  petals  in  cold  climates. 
Indeed,  Linnaeus  has  asserted,  that  the  falling  of  the  pe- 
tals is  generally  owing  to  a  deficiency  of  the  requisite 


*  Philosophical  Transactions,  for  1788.   See,  also,  Tracts  relating  to  Natural 
History,  p.  177, 178.  London :  1798. 

t  See  Part  II.  «*      •  J 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  143 

heat*.  He  mentions  the  following  plants  as  instances  of 
Jlores  mutilati:  viz.  Ipomoea  hepaticaefolia,  Campanu- 
la Pentagonia,  Ruellia  clandestina,  Violse  (Violets  of 
various  species),  Tussilago  Anandria,  and  Lychnis 
apetala.  To  this  list  may  be  added  the  following  plants, 
viz.  Campanula  perfoliata,  Salvia  verbenaca,  Silene  por- 
tensis,  Cistus  salicifolius,  Cistus  guttatus,  Lamium 
amplexicaule,  and  many  others. 

The  learned  Mr.  Adanson  informs  us,  that  the  fol- 
lowing plants  lose  their  petals  at  Paris,  viz.  Glaux  ma- 
ritima,  Peplis,  and  Ammannia. 

In  investigating  the  characters  of  vegetables,  a 
knowledge  of  the  various  forms  and  appearances  that  are 
assumed  by  the  calyx  and  the  corolla,  is  indispensibly 
necessary.  As  this  subject  will  be  more  particularly 
treated  of  in  a  future  part  of  this  workf,  it  is  the  less 
necessary  to  dwell  upon  it  in  this  place. 

In  drawing  the  generic  characters  of  vegetables,  the 
different  species  of  calyx  and  corolla  are  constantly  at- 
tended to  by  Linnaeus,  and  all  other  modern  botanists. 
In  many  instances,  these  parts  even  afford  excellent 
marks  for  the  discrimination  of  the  species. 

Neither  the  calyx  nor  the  corolla  are  ever  essenti- 
ally regarded  by  Linnaeus  in  the  classical  or  ordinal  cha- 
racters of  his  Sexual  System.  It  is  to  be  observed,  how- 
ever, that  this  illustrious  naturalist  has  founded  a  method 
of  plants  exclusively  upon  the  form  and  other  circum- 
stances of  the  calyx.  To  this  method,  which  he  publish- 

*  Philosophia  Botaoica^&c  P-  79,  8o-  \  .119- 
t  See  Part  III 


144  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

ed  in  1737,  he  has  given  the  name  of  metbodus  calycina. 
The  method  of  Magnol,  a  Professor,  at  Montpelier,  can 
hardly  be  called  a  method  founded  on  the  calyx.  Lin- 
naeus, however,  mentions  Magnol,  along  with  himself, 
among  the  Calycist^e,  or  those  botanists  who  have 
founded  their  classes  upon  the  calyx. 

With  respect  to  the  corolla,  many  botanists  have 
founded  the  classes,  or  primary  divisions,  of  their  sys- 
tems, entirely  upon  the  regularity,  the  figure,  the  num- 
ber, and  other  circumstances  of  the  petals.  The  most 
celebrated  systems  of  this  kind,  are  those  of  Augustus 
Quirinus  Rivinus,  and  Joseph  Pitton  Tournefort. 

The  method  of  Rivinus  proceeds  upon  the  circum- 
stance of  the  regularity  and  the  number  of  the  petals. 
That  of  Tournefort  is  founded  upon  the  figure  and  regu- 
larity of  the  petal.  Both  of  these  methods  are  now  uni- 
versally neglected.  They  have  given  way,  in  the  revolu- 
tions of  science,  to  the  more  difficult  Sexual  System  of 
Linnaeus.  But  genuine  botanists  will  continue  to  re- 
gard, with  some  attention,  the  arrangements  of  these 
CorollistjE,  as  Linnaeus  is  pleased  to  denominate 
them*.  System  is  a  slippery  thing.  The  time  may  again 
arrive,  when  the  method  of  Tournefort  will  maintain  a 
station,  if  not  as  elevated  as  it  once  did,  at  least  much 
more  elevated  than  it  does  at  present.  The  Sexual 
System  of  LinnjEus  cannot  be  immortal.  It 
will,  at  some  future  period,  be  deserted  for 
a  system  more  agreeable  to  the  scheme  or  in- 
tentions, of  nature. 

*  Linnaeus  has  given  this  name  (which,  it  is  evident,  is  derived  from  the 
•word  corolla),  to  those  systematic  botanists,  who  have  distributed  vegetables  ac- 
cording to  the  regularity,  the  figure,  and  other  circumstances,  of  the  corolla.  Sorae 
of  the  most  eminent  botanists  have  been  Corollistx. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  145 


§.  III. 


It  has  already  been  observed,  that  the  corolla,  ac- 
cording to  Linnaeus,  consists  of  two  parts,  the  Petal, 
and  the  Nectarium,  or  the  Nectary*.  Of  this  last-men- 
tioned part  I  am  now  to  give  some  account. 

Linnjeus  defines  the  nectary  "  the  melliferous  part 
"  of  the  vegetable,  peculiar  to  the  flower."  According 
to  our  author,  it  secretes  or  contains  a  peculiar  fluid,  the 
honey  of  the  plant,  which  constitutes  the  principal  food 
of  bees,  and  various  other  species  of  insects. 

The  Swedish  naturalist  assumes  to  himself  the  ho- 
nour of  having  first  recognized  this  part  in  the  vege- 
table structure.  "  Nectarium  (says  he)  ne  nomine 
"  notum  erat,  antequam  idem  determinavimust.,,  But 
it  is  certain,  that  both  Tournefort  and  Sebastian  Vail- 
lanthad  noticed  the  nectary  in  certain  species  of  plants; 
the  first  of  these  celebrated  men  before  the  birth  of  Lin- 
naeus, and  the  last  when  the  Swede  was  not  more  than 
ten  years  old.  In  1694,  Tournefort  observed  the  nectary 
in  the  Passion-flower,  the  Asclepias,or  Swallow- wort,  and 
some  other  plants;  and  in  1718,  Vaillant,  who  was  both 
a  man  of  genius  and  an  able  botanist,  noticed  it,  and  re- 
garded it  as  a  part  depending  upon  the  corolla,  or  petals; 
but  which  did  not,  in  his  opinion,  merit  any  particular 
appellation. 

•Seepages  127,  131. 

t  Philosophia  Botanica^  &c.  p.  125.  \.  181. 

U 


146  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

To  the  part  of  which  I  am  speaking,  the  English 
writers  have  given  different  names.  By  some*,  it  has 
been  called  the  "honey-cup."  But  this  name  can- 
not, with  propriety,  be  applied  to  every  species  of  nec- 
tarium,  since,  in  many  plants,  this  part  bears  no  resem- 
blance whatever  to  a  cup,  or  vessel  of  any  kind.  To  the 
term  nectary,  as  a  generic  term  equivalent  to  the  Latin 
nectariumf,  there  is  less  objection,  especially  as  the 
word  nectar,  applied  to  a  sweet  or  honied  liquor,  is  so  fa- 
miliar in  the  English  language;  as  are  also,  the  words 
"  nectared,"  "  nectareous,"  and"  nectarine. "  Thus,in 
the  following  lines,  the  greatest  of  the  English  poets 
uses  the  word  "  nectared." 

"  How  charming  is  divine  philosophy  ! 

"  Not  harsh  and  crabbed,  as  dull  fools  suppose, 

"  But  musical  as  is  Apollo's  lute, 

a  And  a  perpetual  feast  of  nectar 'd  sweets, 

"  Where  no  crude  surfeit  reigns." 

Milton. 

a.  The  nectary  assumes  a  variety  of  forms,  in  different 
species  of  vegetables.  Thus,  1.  in  many  flowers,  it  is 
shaped  like  a  horn,  or  the  spur  of  a  cock.  This  is  the 
nectarium  calcaratum,  corniculatum,  or  cornutum,  the 
spurred,  spur-shaped,  or  horned  nectary;  of  which  we 
have  examples  in  the  following  vegetables,  viz.  Vale- 
rian, Water-Milfoil,  Butter-wort,  Calves-snout,  Lark- 
spur, Violet,  Fumatory,  Balsam,  and  Orchis.  2.  The 
nectarium  scrotiforme,  or  purse-like  nectary,  is  some- 
what globular,  with  a  depressed  line  in  the  middle.  3. 
vectarium  ovatwn,  or  ovate  nectary.  4.  nectarium  tur~ 

*  Dr.  Darwin,  &.C. 

f  "  Those  who  prefer  the  Latin  termination,  use  nectaria  in  the  plural, 
"  which  is  not  English.  Why  do  they  not  uszjilamenta,  stigmata,  &c  ?"  Profes- 
sor Martyn. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  147 

binatum,  or  turbinate  nectary;  and,  5.  nectarium  cari- 
natum,  or  keeled  nectary.  This  kind  of  nectary,  being 
entirely  distinct  from  the  petals,  is  denominated  necta- 
rium proprium,  or  proper  nectary. 

b.  In  some  plants,  the  nectary  is  really  apart  of  the 
corolla,  since  it  lies  within  the  substance  of  the  petals. 
The  following  plants  are  instances  of  this  kind  of  nec- 
tary, viz.  Fritillaria,  Lilium,  Swertia,  Iris,  Hermannia, 
Uvularia,  Hydrophyllum,  Myosurus,  Ranunculus,  Bro- 
melia,Erythronium,  Berberis,and  the  wonderful  Vallis- 
neria.  This  is  what  Linnaeus  calls  nectarium  petalli- 
num,  or  petalline  nectary. 

c.  In  many  plants,  the  nectary  is  placed  in  a  series  or 
row,  within  the  petals,  or  corolla,  and  yet  is  entirely 
unconnected  with  their  substance.  A  nectary  of  this 
kind  is  said,  by  Linnaeus,  to  crown  the  corolla.  The 
following  plants,  among  many  others,  furnish  examples 
of  this  kind  of  nectary,  viz.  Passiflora*,  Narcissus, 
Pancratium,  Olax,  Lychnis,  Silene,  Stapelia,  Asclepias, 
Cynanchum,  Nepenthes,  Cherleria,  Clusia,  Hamamelis, 
Diosma. 

d.  In  the  following  plants,  the  nectary  is  situated 
upon,  and  makes  a  part  of,  the  calyx,  instead  of  the 
corolla:  viz.  Tropaeolum,  Monotropa,  Biscutella,  and 
Malpighia.  This  is  the  nectarium  calycinum,  or  caly- 
cine  nectary. 

e.  In  some  plants,  the  nectary  is  situated  upon  the 
anthers,  or  summits  of  the  stamens.  Hence  one  of  these 

♦  See  Plate  XXV. 


148  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

plants,  the  Bastard  flower-fence  of  the  English,  has  re- 
ceived  the  generic  name  of  Adenanthera. 

f.  The  nectary  of  many  plants  is  placed  upon  the  fila- 
ments. This  is  the  case  in  Laurus,  Dictamnus,  Zygo- 
phyllum,  Commelina*,  Mirabilis,  Plumbago,  Campa- 
nula, Roella,  and  others. 

g.  In  the  following  plants,  the  nectary  is  placed  upon 
the  germ,  or  seed-bud:  viz.  Hyacinth,  Flowering- Rush, 
Stock  July-flower,  and  Rocket.  This  is  the  nectarium 
pistillaceum,  or  pistillaceous  nectary. 

Jb.  In  Honey-flower,  Orpine,  Buck-wheat,  Collinsonia, 
or  Horse-weed;  Lathraea,  Navel-wort,  Mercury,  Clutia, 
Kiggelaria,  Sea-side  Laurel,  and  several  others,  the  nec- 
tary is  placed  upon,  or  attached  to,  the  common  recep- 
tacle. This  is  the  nectarium  receptaculaceum,  or  recep- 
tacular  nectary. 

i.  Linnjeus  considers,  as  a  true  nectarium,  the 
tube,  or  lower  part,  of  the  monopetalous  or  one-petalled 
flowers,  such  as  Datura,  Nicotiana,  &c.  because,  in  ge- 
neral, this  part  contains,  and  probably  forms,  a  sweet  or 
honied  liquor,  which  constitutes  one  of  the  alimentary 
articles  of  bees,  phalaenae,  and  other  insects. 

k.  In  many  plants,  such  as  Ginger,  Turmerick,  Re- 
seda, Grewia,  Nettle,  Bastard  Orpine,  Vanilla,  Wil- 
low, &c.  the  nectary  is  of  a  singular  construction,  and 
cannot,  with  propriety,  be  referred  to  any  of  the  prece- 
ding heads. 

*  See  Plate  X.  Fig.  1. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  H9 

LinnJEus  affirms,  that  those  plants  which  have  their 
nectary  distinct  from  the  petals,  that  is,  not  lodged 
within  the  substance  of  the  petals,  are  generally  poison- 
ous. The  following  plants  are  adduced  as  examples  of 
this  observation:  viz.  Monkshood,  Hellebore,  Colum- 
bine, Fennel-flower,  Parnassia,  Barren-wort,  Oleander, 
Marvel  of  Peru,  Bean- Caper,  Succulent  Swallow- wort, 
Fraxinella,  and  Honey-flower. 

Some  of  these  plants  are,  indeed,  poisonous,  such  as 
Monkshood,  Oleander,  Hellebore,  &c.  But,  I  am  in- 
clined to  think,  that  the  observation  of  Linnaeus  is  not 
of  much  practical  importance;  since  it  is  certain,  that 
some  of  the  plants  which  he  has  introduced  into  the  list 
are  by  no  means  highly  deleterious;  and  their  honey 
does  not  seem  to  contain  any  noxious  quality.  F.  A. 
Cartheuser,  a  long  time  ago,  denied  the  truth  of  the  Lin- 
nsean  position.  S.  A.  Spielmann  asserts,  that  there  is 
nothing  poisonous  in  the  flowers  of  the  Aconitum,  or 
Monkshood*.  Certain  it  is,  that  bees  extract  the  honey 
of  this  plant,  as  they  do  also  from  the  nectaries  of  Aqui- 
legia  vulgaris,  and  Aquilegia  canadensis,  or  Common, 
and  Canadian  Columbine.  It  must,  however,  be  admit- 
ted, that  we  cannot  safely  infer  the  innocent  nature  of  a 
vegetable,  because  bees  extract,  and  receive  no  injury 
from,  the  honey  of  such  vegetable. 

It  has  always  appeared  to  me,  that  the  Swedish  na- 
turalist has  been  less  happy,  and  has  discovered  less 
talent  and  precision  in1  his  history  of  the  nectary,  than 
in  his  account  of  most  of  the  other  parts  of  the  vege- 
table.    Notwithstanding  his  assertion,  that  the  nectary 

*  De  Aconito.    Argcntorati :  1769.  8vo.  4 


150  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

is  a  part  of  the  corolla,  it  is  certain,  that  all  flowers  are 
not  provided  with  this  organ  or  appendage,  and  in  many 
plants  which  are  provided  with  it,  there  is  no  immedi- 
ate connection  whatever  between  it  and  the  corolla. 
44  Linnaeus  (to  use  the  words  of  a  very  sensible  botanist) 
14  might,  with  equal  propriety,  have  termed  it  (the  nec- 
44  tary)  a  part  or  appendage  of  the  stamina,  calix,  or  poin- 
44  tal,  as  the  appearance  in  question  is  confined  to  no  par- 
44  ticular  part  of  the  flower,  but  is  as  various  in  point  of 
44  situation,  as  of  form.  The  truth  is,  the  term  nectarium 
44  is  exceedingly  vague;  and,  if  any  determinate  mean- 
44  ing  can  be  affixed  to  it,  is  expressive  of  all  the  singu- 
44  larities  which  are  observed  in  the  different  parts  of 
44  flowers*." 

Dr.  Smith  observes,  that  44  Linnaeus  called  every 
44  thing,  not  calyx,  petals,  or  organs  of  propagation, 
44  nectariumf."  It  may  be  added,  that  what  the  Swe- 
dish naturalist  calls  nectaria,  some  other  writers  have 
thought  proper  to  denominate  petals.  Thus,  Vail- 
lant  denominated  the  nectaries  of  the  Nigella  and  Aqui- 
legia,  petals.  The  coloured  leaves  of  these  plants,  which 
are  now  regarded  as  petals,  the  French  botanist  called 
the  calyx,  or  flower-cup.  G.  C.  Oeder  follows  Vaillant, 
in  considering  the  nectaries  of  many  of  the  plants  of  the 
class  Polyandria,  as  petals.  Moenich  calls  these  spur- 
red or  horned  nectaries,  of  which  I  am  speaking, para- 
petala.  Linnaeus  has,  moreover,  sometimes  called  the 
abortive  or  infertile  stamens  of  certain  plants,  nectaria. 
In  this  respect,  Mr.  L'Heritier  has  also  erred,  particu- 
larly in  drawing  the  generic  character  of  Erodium. 

*  Milne's  Botanical  Dictionary,  &c.  article  Nectarium. 
f  Syllabus,  kc.  p.  23. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  151 

Upon  the  whole,  the  term  nectarium  is  an  extremely- 
vague  one.  I  cannot  help  agreeing  with  Mr.  De  Jussieu, 
that  the  term  should  be  rejected  from  the  science  of  Bo- 
tany. It  is  greatly  to  be  wished,  that  some  person,  pos- 
sessed of  the  requisite  talents,  would  undertake  the 
investigation  of  the  subject  of  the  various  species  of 
nectaries,  and  arrange  these  parts  under  some  more  ap- 
propriate names. 

Necker  restricts  the  term  nectarium,  to  those  glan- 
dular bodies  which  occupy  the  base  of  the  stamens,  and 
secrete  a  honied  liquor.  He  admits,  that  there  are 
other  parts  of  vegetables  which  furnish  a  honied  liquor 
in  flowers,  but  these,  he  says,  are  of  no  consequence  in 
determining  the  characters  of  plantsf. 

In  investigating  the  genera  of  plants,  a  knowledge 
of  the  various  species  of  nectarium  is  of  very  essential, 
and  indeed,  indispensible,  consequence.  Thus,  the  es- 
sence of  the  genus  Ranunculus,  consists  in  its  nectary, 
which  is  a  small  prominence  that  is  situated  at  the  un- 
guis, or  claw,  of  each  petal  of  this  plant.  But  this  subject 
will  be  particularly  attended  to,  in  Part  Third  of  this 
work. 

':*         «V»         *1*         *l*         'T*         M*         1*         T»i 

\^       \U       \U      SLL      sk. 

The  chemical  analysis  of  the  honey  of  the  necta- 
ries, has  been  very  little  attended  to.  What  has  been 
done,  leads  us  to  believe,  that  this  secreted  juice  (in 
many  plants  at  least),  contains  nothing  distinct  from  su- 


t  Corollarium,  &c  p.  13,  14. 


152  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

gar  or  honey.  F.  A.  Cartheuser  examined  the  honey  of 
the  nectaria  of  different  plants,  particularly  that  of  the 
Melianthus,  or  Honey-Flower.  He  says  the  honey  of 
this  plant  is  a  true  honey.  Some  authors  inform  us, 
that  the  honey  of  the  Melianthus  is  a  stomachic.  This 
would  seem  to  show,  that  it  contains  some  foreign  qua- 
lity, distinct  from  mere  sugar  or  honey. 

There  is  often,  however,  combined  with  the  honey 
of  plants,  a  noxious  property.  This  is  frequently  the  pro- 
perty of  the  plant  which  secretes  the  honey.  The  tube 
of  the  flower  of  the  Agave  americana  contains  a  great 
deal  of  a  watery,  honey-like  fluid,  which  is  sweet,  and  of 
an  acid  nature.  This  fluid  is  purgative,  and  emetic, 
when  exhibited  in  the  dose  of  two  table-spoonfuls. 
The  nectar  of  some  plants  is  entirely  refused  by  the 
bees.  Thus,  bees  do  not  touch  the  honey  of  the  Fri- 
tillaria,  or  Crown-Imperial*.  Yet  I  do  not  know  that 
any  experiments  have  shown,  that  this  honey  is  noxious 
to  animals.  The  Fritillaria  is,  indeed,  a  poisonous  plant. 
But  we  are  told,  that  the  Willow-wren  runs  up  the 
stem  of  this  fine  vegetable,  and  sips  the  honey.  We 
know  that  the  honey  which  is  procured  from  certain 
vegetables  is  poisonous.  The  Greekf  and  RomanJ  na- 
turalists speak  of  a  poisonous  honey;  and  we  are  ac- 
quainted with  some  of  the  plants  from  which  this  honey 
is  procured.  In  North- America,  an  intoxicating  and  de- 
leterious honey  is  procured  from  the  flowers  of  the 
Kalmia  angustifolia,  and  other  vegetables.  In  the 
Transactions  of  the  American  Philosophical  Society**, 

*  J.  Duverney,  Linnaeus,  &c. 

t  Xenophon,  Dioscorides,  Diodorus  Siculus,  &c. 

|  Pliny.  •«  Vol.  V.  No.  VII. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  153 

I  have  inserted  a  memoir  on  the  "  Poisonous  and  Inju- 
rious Honey  of  North-America.'*  To  this  memoir  I 
beg  leave  to  refer  the  reader. 

It  has  been  observed,  that  thenectar  of  plants,"  tempts 
insects  to  assist  the  impregnation*."  This  is,  no  doubt, 
the  case.  But  it  may  well  be  questioned,  whether 
this  is  the  final  end,  or  intention  of  nature,  in  furnishing 
plants  with  the  nectary  fluid.  We  find  that  the  nectar 
of  some  plants  is  altogether  untouched  by  insects. 
Such  as  Fritillaria.  Besides,  in  very  many  plants,  which 
abound  in  nectar,  the  styles,  from  their  proportion,  or 
situation,  are  readily,  nay  necessarily,  impregnated, 
without  any  insectile  assistance.  In  Fritillaria,  the  aid  of 
insects  cannot  be  wanted.  I  presume,  that  the  business 
of  vegetable  impregnation  would  proceed  very  well, 
even  were  the  whole  world  of  insects  entirely  annihi- 
lated. So  little  necessary  dependence,  in  this  respect  at 
least,  is  there  between  the  great  worlds  of  animals  and 
vegetables.  So  feeble,  so  visionary,  is  the  theory  of  those 
philosophers,  who  have  imagined,  that  Nature  has  con- 
nected together,  in  necessary  dependence,  her  innume- 
rable productions,  like  links  in  a  chain  of  man's  con- 
struction! 

The  botanists  have  found  no  small  difficulty  in  de- 
termining the  real  use  of  the  nectaries,  and  of  the  honied 
liquor  which  they  contain.  Julius  Pontedera  imagined, 
that  the  honey  of  plants  is  equivalent  to  the  liquor  amnii, 
or  liquor  of  the  amnion,  in  pregnant  animals,  and  that  it 

enters  the  fertile  or  impregnated  seedsf.  Here  it  might 

* 

*  Dr.  I.  E.  Smith. 

t  Amhologia,  «eiule  Floris  Natura,  Sec.  Patav'u:  1720.  4to. 

X 


154  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

be  observed,  that  the  importance  of  the  liquor  amnii,  as 
an  agent  in  the  nutrition  of  the  fetus,  is  not  admitted  by 
the  generality  of  the  modern  physiologists*.  It  is,  how- 
ever, of  more  importance,  to  observe,  that  the  hypothe- 
sis of  Pontedera  is  rendered  improbable  by  this  circum- 
stance, that  the  nectary,  and  the  honey  which  it  contains, 
are  found  in  many  male  flowers,  such  as  those  of  the 
Willow  and  the  Nettle,  where  there  are  no  seeds  to  be 
impregnated.  Perhaps,  however,  this  does  not  decidedly 
show,  that  the  nectareous  fluid  is  useless  in  giving  ferti- 
lity to  the  seed.  It  is  certain,  that  nature,  intent  upon  a 
specific  object,  or  end,  sometimes  bestows  upon  the  dif- 
ferent sexes  of  a  species,  the  same  organs.  Thus,  she 
concedes  to  the  males  and  females  of  certain  animals,  the 
secretory  organs,  which  we  call  mammae,  or  breasts.  In 
both  sexes,  these  organs  sometimes  secrete  a  peculiar 
fluid,  called  milk.  Yet,  this  secretion  can  be  required  in 
one  of  the  sexes  only. 

But  actual  experiments  have  shown,  that  the  nectary 
is  not  essentially  necessary  to  the  fertility  of  the  seed. 
We  have  seen,  that  in  many  plants,  the  nectaries  are 
distinct  from  the  corolla.  The  Aconitum,  or  Monks- 
hood, is  one  of  these  plants.  The  nectaries  of  this  plant 
were  removed ;  but  the  seeds  were  as  effectually  ripened, 
as  though  the  operation  had  not  been  performedf. 

Ludwig  supposed  that  the  office  of  the  nectary  is  to 
excrete  those  juices  of  the  plant  which  are  too  thick,  or 


*  Of  late,  however,  Dr.  Darwin  has  endeavoured  to  show,  that  the  liquor 
amnii  is  of  real  importance,  in  the  nutrition  of  the  fetus.  See  his  Zoonomia, 
■Jkc.  Vol.  I.  Sect.  XXXVIII. 

f  F.  A.  Ca-rtheuser. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  155 

gross*.   But  neither  is  this  a  very  satisfactory  explana- 
tion of  the  use  of  the  organ. 

Boehmer  supposes,  that  the  true  nectaries  secrete  a 
juice  which  is  necessary  to  the  nutriment  of  the  plantf. 

Dr.  Darwin  has  proposed  a  new  and  very  ingeni- 
ous idea  concerning  the  use  of  the  nectary  of  vegetables. 
"  The  nectary,  or  honey-cup,  he  says,  is  evidently  an 
*'  appendage  to  the  corol,  and  is  the  reservoir  of  the 
*'  honey,  which  is  secreted  by  an  appropriate  gland  from 

"  the  blood,  after  its  oxygenation  in  the  corol" 

"  and  is  absorbed  for  nutriment  by  the  sexual  parts  of 
"  the  flower."  It  is  the  opinion  of  this  writer,  that  this 
saccharine  secretion  serves  as  food  to  the  anthers,  and 
stigmas.  Let  us  see  upon  what  grounds  this  idea  pro- 
ceeds. In  many  tribes  of  insects,  as  in  the  silk-worm, 
moths,  butterflies,  &c.  the  male  and  female  parents  die 
assoonastheeggs  are  impregnated  andexcluded,  the  eggs 
remaining  to  be  perfected  and  hatched  at  some  future 
period.  In  vegetables  we  observe  nearly  the  same  phe- 
nomenon. In  this  family  of  animated  objects,  the  stamens 
and  pistils  fall  off  and  die,  as  soon  as  the  seeds  are  impreg- 
nated, and  along  with  these  genital  parts,  the  petals  and 
honey-cups.  It  is  observed,  that  the  insects  which  I  have 
mentioned,  so  soon  as  they  acquire  the  passion  and  the 
apparatus  for  the  reproduction  of  their  species,  lose  the 
power  of  feeding  upon  leaves,  as  they  did  before,  and  be- 
come nourished  by  honey  alone. 

"  Hence  (continues  our  author)  we  acquire  a  strong 
"  analogy  for  the  use  of  the  nectary,  or  secretion  ofho- 

*  Institutiones  Regni  Vegetabilis,  &c.  1757-  Svo. 

f  Dissertatiolnauguralisde  Nectariis  Florum.  Wittemberg :    175S.  4co. 


156  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

"  ney,  in  the  vegetable  economy;  which  is, that  the  male 
"  parts  of  flowers,  and  the  female  parts,  as  soon  as 
"  they  leave  their  fetus-state,  expanding  their  petals 
"  (which  constitute  their  lungs*)  become  sensible  to  the 
44  passion,  and  gain  the  apparatus,  for  the  reproduction 
"  of  their  species;  and  are  fed  and  nourished  with  ho- 
"  ney  like  the  insects  above  described;  and  that  hence 
44  the  nectary  begins  its  office  of  producing  honey,  and 
44  dies  or  ceases  to  produce  honey,  at  the  same  time  with 
"  the  birth  and  death  of  the  anthers,  and  the  stigmas; 
t*  which,  whether  existing  in  the  same  or  in  different 
44  flowers,  are  separate  and  distinct  animated  beings. 

44  Pre  vious  to  this  time,  the  anthers  with  their  fila- 
44  ments,  and  the  stigmas  with  their  syles,  are  in  their 
44  fetus-state  sustained  in  some  plants  by  their  umbilical 
4  4  vessels,  like  the  unexpanded  leaf-buds,  as  in  Colchicum 
44  autumnale,  and  Daphne  Mezereon;  and  in  other  plants 
44  by  the  bractes,  or  floral-leaves,  as  in  Rhubarb,  which 
44  are  expanded  long  before  the  opening  of  the  flower ;  the 
44  seeds  at  the  same  time  existing  in  the  vegetable  womb 
44  yet  unimpregnated,  and  the  dust  yet  unripe  in  the  cells 
44  of  the  anthers.  After  this  period,  the  petals  become  ex- 

44  panded," 4C  the  umbilical  vessels,  which  before 

44  nourished  the  anthers  and  the  stigmas,  coalesce,  or 
44  cease  to  nourish  them;  and  they  acquire  blood  more 
44  oxygenated  by  the  air,  obtain  the  passion  and  power 
44  of  reproduction,  are  sensible  to  heat,  and  light,  and 
44  moisture,  and  to  mechanic  stimulus,  and  become,  in 
44  reality,  insects  fed  with  honey;  similar  in  every  res- 
44  pect  except  that  all  of  them  yet  known  but  the  male 

*  See  page  140,  141. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  157 

"  flowers  of  Vallisneria*,  continue  attached  to  the  plant, 
44  on  which  they  are  produced. 

44  So  water  insects  (continues  our  author),  as  the 
44  gnat,  and  amphibious  animals,  as  the  tad-pole,  ac- 
44  quire  new  aerial  lungs,  when  they  leave  their  infant 
44  state  for  that  of  puberty.  And  the  numerous  tribes  of 
44  caterpillars  are  fed  upon  the  common  juices  of  vege- 
44  tables  found  in  their  leaves,  till  they  acquire  the  organs 
44  of  reproduction;  and  then  they  feed  on  honey,  all  I  be- 
44  lieve  except  the  silk-worm,  which  in  this  country 
44  (Britain)  takes  no  nourishment  after  it  becomes  a  but- 
44  terfly.  And  the  larva  or  maggot  of  the  bee,  accord - 
44  ing  to  the  observations  of  Mr.  Hunter,  is  fed  with 
44  raw  vegetable  matter,  called  bee-bread,  which  is  col- 
44  lected  from  the  anthers  of  flowers,  and  laid  up  in  cells 
44  for  that  purpose,  till  the  maggot  becomes  a  winged  bee, 
44  acquires  greater  sensibility,  and  is  fed  with  honey  f." 

Such  is  Dr.  Darwin's  hypothesis  concerning  the 
use  of  the  nectar,  or  honied  liquor  of  plants.  The  hypo- 
thesis is  certainly  ingenious,  and  is  entitled  to  the  at- 
tention of  naturalists.  But  it  is  merely  in  the  light  of  an 
hypothesis  that  it  ought  to  be  viewed.  And  yet  it  has 
already  been  adopted  by  some  writers,  particularly  by 
the  ingenious  female  author  of  a  work  entitled  Botanical 
Dialogues'^..  Future  experiments  will  show  how  far  the 
opinion  of  the  English  philosopher  is  founded  upon  a 

*  We  are  now  acquainted  with  two  species  of  Vallisneria,  the  V.  spiralis, 
and  V.  Americana.  Of  this  last  species,  which  is  a  native  of  many  parts  of  North- 
America,  growing  abundantly  in  the  river  Delaware,  fkc.  &c.  I  have  given  % 
particular  account,  in  a  memoir  read  before  the  American  Philosophical  Society, 
on  the  6th  of  February,  1801. 

f  Phytologia,  &c.  Sect.  VII.  See,  also,  Sect.  VI 
|  London :  1797.  SVo. 


158  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

solid  basis.  I  must  confess,  that  very  powerful  objec- 
tions to  the  hypothesis  present  themselves  to  my  mind. 
Certainly,  all  plants  are  not  furnished  with  the  organs 
called  nectaries,  particularly  with  those  speeies  of  necta- 
ries which  are  known  to  secrete  or  contain  a  honied 
fluid.  Moreover,  we  have  seen,  that  the  nectaries  of  cer- 
tain species  of  plants  may  be  entirely  removed,  without 
obviously  affecting,  in  any  degree,  the  health  or  fertility 
of  the  plant.  When  we  consider,  however,  the  highly 
nutritious  nature  of  sugar,  honey,  and  other  saccharine 
matters,  it  would  seem  not  improbable,  that  the  nectar  is 
really  conceded  to  plants  to  assist  in  giving  nutriment 
or  strength  to  them.  This  opinion  is,  at  least,  more  phi- 
losophical, than  that  of  those  writers,  who  have  imagi- 
ned, that  plants  are  furnished  with  nectar  merely  as  an 
alimentary  article  for  insects,  or  as  an  incitement  for 
them  to  give  their  aid,  in  ensuring  the  fertility  of  plants. 


5.  IV. 

The  Stamen,  which  some  English  writers  have 
called  the  Chive,  is  defined,  by  Linnaeus,  "  an  organ  for 
the  preparation  of  the  pollen:"  "  Viscus  pro  Pollinis 
praeparatione*." 

The  stamens,  in  most  flowers,  are  placed  round  the 
seed-bud,  and  consist,  according  to  Linnaeus,  of  three 
parts,  the  Filamentum,  the  Anthera,  and  the  Pollen.  In 
reality,  however,  the  stamen  consists  of  only  two  parts, 
the  filamentum,  and  the  anther,  the  pollen  being  merely 
a  matter  secreted  by,  or  contained  in,  the  anther. 

*  Philosophia  Botanica,  &.c.  p.  53.  §•  86. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  159 

A.I  shall  first  speak  of  the  Filamentum.  This, which 
receives  its  name  from  the  Latin  word,  filum,  a  thread, 
is  the  more  slender,  or  thread-like  part  of  the  stamen 
which  supports  the  anther,  and  connects  it  with  the 
flower.  The  term  filament  is  equivalent  to  the  term  sta- 
men, as  employed  by  Tournefort,  and  other  botanists. 

a.  The  filaments,  in  respect  to  number,  are  very 
different,  in  different  vegetables.  Some  plants  have  but 
one  filament,  some  two,  three,  &c.  &c.  whilst  some  have 
from  twenty  to  a  thousand. 

b.  In  point  of  figure,  the  filament  is,  1.  capillar e, 
capillary;  long  and  fine  like  a  hair.  2.  planum,  flat; 
having  the  two  surfaces  parallel.  3.  cuneiforme,  cunei- 
form; or  wedge-shaped.  4.  spirale,  spiral;  ascending  in 
a  spiral  line.  5.  subulatum,  subulate,  or  awl-shaped.  6. 
e marginatum,  emarginate.  7.  rejlexum,  reflected.  8. 
laciniatum,  laciniated.  9.  dentatum,  toothed.  10.  muti- 
latum,  mutilated;  with  the  rudiment  only  of  a  filament. 
11.  castratum,  castrated;  elevating  a  barren  anther,  or 
none  at  all;  as  in  some  species  of  Geranium. 

c.  In  point  of  insertion,  the  filaments  are,  1.  calyci 
opposita,  opposite  to  the  leaflets  or  segments  of  the 
calyx.  2.  calyci  alterna,  alternate  with  the  calyx;  placed 
alternately  with  the  leaflets  of  the  calyx.  3.  corollina, 
inserted  into  the  corolla.  4.  calycina,  calycine;  inserted 
into  the  calyx.  5.  rectptaculacea,  receptacular;  inserted 
into  the  receptacle.  6.  nectarina,  nectarine;  inserted  on 
the  nectary.  7.  stylo  insert a;  inserted  on  the  style;  as 
in  the  plants  of  the  class  Gynandria. 


160  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

d.  In  point  of  proportion,  the  filaments  are,  1.  aqua- 
lia,  equal;  all  of  the  same  length.  2.  inaqualia,  unequal; 
some  larger  than  others.  3.  connata,  connate;  conjoined 
into  one  body,  so  as  to  form  a  tube  at  the  base;  as  in  the 
plants  of  the  class  Monadelphia  4.  longissima,  very 
long;  longer  than  the  corolla.  5.  brevisszma,  very  short; 
much  shorter  than  the  corolla.  6.  longitudine  corolla, 
of  the  same  length  as  the  corolla.  7.  longitudine  calycis, 
of  the  same  length  as  the  calyx. 

e.  In  respect  to  its  surface,  the  filament  is,  1.  pilo- 
suJii,  hairy.  2.  mllosum,  villous.  3.  hirsutum,  hirsute. 

f.  In  respect  to  its  structure,  the  filament  is,  1. 
membranaceum,  membranous.  2.  nectariferum,  necta- 
riferous. 

g.  In  respect  to  its  direction,  the  filament  is,  1.  erec- 
tion, erect.  2.  patens,  spreading.  3.  patentiusculum, 
somewhat  spreading.  4.  patentissimum,  very  much 
spreading.  5.  arcuatum,  bowed;  bent  in  the  form  of  a 
bow.  6.  connivens,  converging;  approaching  the  other 
filaments  with  the  point.  7.  reflexum,  reflected.  8.  decli- 
natum,  declined.  9.  inflexum,  inflected.  \Q.  flaccidum, 
flaccid.  11.  assurge?is,  assurgent.  12.  ascendens,  as- 
cending. 13.  recurvum,  recurved.  14.  incurimm,  incur- 
ved. 

In  assimilating  the  animal  and  the  vegetable  king- 
doms, Linnaeus  has  been  pleased  to  denominate  the  fila- 
ments, '*  vasa  spermatica,"  or  the  spermatic  vessels. 
We  shall  afterwards  have  occasion  to  inquire,  how  far 
there  is  any  foundation  for  this  opinion;  and,  also,  with 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  161 

what  propriety,  the  anthers  are  denominated  the  "testes" 
of  the  plant. 

B.  The  Anther  is  the  second  part  of  the  stamen. 
This  is  the  part  which  Ray  denominated  the  Apex,  and 
Malpighi,  Capsula  staminis.  Dr.  Grew,  and  others  of 
the  older  botanists,called  it  the  Summit,  Semet,  Pendent, 
or  Tip.  "  I  prefer  Anther  to  Anthera,  in  English;  be- 
44  cause  we  thus  avoid  any  dissention  between  the  learn- 
44  ed  and  unlearned,  respecting  the  pronunciation  of  the 
44  penultima,  and  the  formation  of  the  plural*." 

Li  n  n  je  u  s  defines  the  anther  to  be  a  part  of  the  flow- 
er, big  with  pollen,  or  farina,  which  it  emits  or  explodes 
when  ripef.  The  anther  may  be  defined,  a  capsule  or 
vessel,  destined  to  produce  or  contain  a  substance  whose 
office  is  the  impregnation  of  the  germ,  or  female  organ. 
It  commonly  forms  a  part  of  the  stamen,  and  is  usually 
placed  upon  the  top  of  the  filament.  But  it  must  not 
be  forgotten,  that  in  many  plants,  the  anther  exists 
without  any  filament  to  support  it. 

a.  The  number  of  the  anthers  is  very  different  in  dif- 
ferent plants.  The  generality  of  plants  have  a  single  an- 
ther to  each  filament.  This  is  the  case  with  most  of  the 
plants  that  are  figured  in  these  Elements.  To  this  gene- 
ral rule,  however,  there  are  many  exceptions:  viz.  1. 
Mercurialis,  or  Mercury,  and  Ranunculus  have  two  an- 
thers to  each  filament.  This  is  what  Linnaeus  denomi- 
nates, anthera  didyma,  or  twin  anther.   2.  Fumaria  has 

*  Professor  Martyn. 

f  "  Anthera  pars  floris  gravida  Polline,  quod  matura  dimittit."  Philosophi* 
Botanica,  &c  p.  53.  \.  S6. 

Y 


162  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY, 

three  anthers  to  each  filament.  3.  Bryonia  has  five  anthers 
to  three  filaments.  Here  a  single  anther  is  affixed  to  one 
of  the  filaments,  and  theremainingfour  anthers  are  equal- 
ly divided  between  the  other  two  filaments.  4.  In  the  The- 
obroma,  or  Chocolate-nut,  there  are  five  anthers  to  each 
filament.  5.  The  Pea,  the  Bean,  Vetch,  Trefoil,  Liquo- 
rice, and  many  other  flowers  of  the  class  of  Diadelphia, 
have,  in  general,  ten  anthers  to  two  filaments;  or,  more 
properly  speaking,  to  two  sets  of  united  stamens.  6.  In 
the  Gucurbita,  or  Gourd,  there  is  one  anther  common  to 
three  filaments.  7.  In  the  Dandelion,  Feverfew?  Ground- 
sel, and  other  really  compound  flowers,  of  the  class  of 
Syngcnesia,  one  anther  is  common  to  five  filaments:  or, 
to  speak  more  properly,  five  anthers,  which  are  united 
into  a  cylinder,  are  placed  upon  five  distinct  and  sepa- 
rate filaments.  8.  In  some  plants,  some  of  the  filaments 
are  terminated  by  anthers,  whilst  others  are  naked,  or 
destitute  of  these  parts.  Thus,  the  two  genera  Chelonc 
and  Martynia,  are  furnished  with  four  complete  sta- 
mens; together  with  the  rudiment  of  a  fifth  filament, 
which  is  destitute  of  the  anther.  Verbena  has  four  fila- 
ments, only  two  of  which  are  antheriferous.  The  Big- 
nonia  Catalpa  of  Linnaeus  has  two  perfect  stamens,  or 
btamens  with  anthers;  and  three  filaments,  which  want 
the  anthers.  Other  irregularities  of  this  kind  will  be  no- 
ticed, in  the  progress  of  this  work. 

b.  In  point  of  figure,  the  anther  is,  1.  oblonga,  ob- 
long. 2.  globosa,  globular.  3.  sagittata,  sagittate.  4. 
angulata,  angular.  5.  cornuta,  horned.  6.  bicornis,  two- 
horned.  7.  linearis,  linear.  8.  acuta,  acute.  9.  acutius- 
cula,  rather  acute.  10.  cor  data,  cordate.  11.  cvata, 
ovate.  12.  hastata,  hastate.  13.  biloba,  two-lobed.  14. 
reniformis,  reniform.     15.  bifida,  bifid.    16.  bipartita. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  163 

two-parted.  17.  aristata,  awned;  ending  in  an  awn.  18. 
setifer, bristle-bearing;  ending  in  a  bristle.  19.  rostrata, 
rostrate,  or  beaked;  ending  in  a  filiform  beak.  20.  trun- 
cata,  truncated.  21.  obtusa,  obtuse.  22.  emarginata, 
emarginate.  23.  acuminata,  acuminate.  24.  furcata, 
forked;  divided  at  the  end,  and  diverging. 

c.  In  point  of  direction,  the  anther  is,  I.  erect  a,  erect. 
2.  rigida,  rigid.  3.  patens,  spreading.  4.  assurgens, 
assurgent.  5.  inflexa,  inflected.  6.  nutans,  nodding.  7. 
declinata,  declined.  8.  pendula,  pendulous.  9.  incurva, 
incurved.  10.  connivens,  converging.  11.  spiraliter  con- 
torta,  twisted  spirally. 

J.  In  point  of  insertion,  the  anther  is,  1.  sessilis, 
sessile.  2.  versatilis,  versatile;  incumbent,  but  freely 
moveable.  3.  adnata,  adnate.  4.  distinct  a,  distinct;  not 
cohering  with  other  anthers.  5.  connate,  connate;  when 
several  anthers  are  conjoined  into  one.  6.  cylindracece, 
cylindrical;  formed  into  a  cylinder,  or  equal  tube.  7.  tu- 
bulate, tubular;  coalescing  so  as  to  form  a  tube;  as  in 
the  compound  flowers  of  the  class  of  Syngenesia.  8. 
coherentes,  cohering  at  the  base,  apex,  &c.  9.  incum- 
bens,  incumbent;  fixed  by  the  middle  upon  the  filament.. 
10.  lateralis,  lateral;  connected  by  the  whole  side  to  the 
filament. 

e.  In  respectto  substance,  the  anther  is,  1.  niembrana- 
cea,  membranous.  I.depressa,  depressed.  3.  compressa, 
compressed.  4.  convexa,  convex.  5.  plana,  flat.  6.  sul- 
cata, furrowed.  7.  transversim  sulcata,  transversely 
furrowed.  8.  longitudinaliter  sulcata,  longitudinally 
furrowed.  9.  subulata,  subulate.  10.  bilamellata,  bila- 
.mellated;  with  two  membranous  plates. 


164  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

f.  In  respect  to  measure,  the  anther  is,  Y.filamentis 
brevior,  shorter  than  the  filaments.  2.  corolla  brevior, 
shorter  than  the  corolla.  3.  longitudine  filamenti,  of  the 
same  length  as  the  filament.  4.  longior  filamentis,  longer 
than  the  filaments.  5.  aquales,  equal;  of  the  same  size 
as  one  another.  6.  longissima,  very  long;  much  longer 
than  the  filament.  7.  bremssima,  very  short;  much  short- 
er than  the  filament. 

g.  In  respect  to  its  place,  the  anther  is,  1.  tecta, 
covered;  concealed  by  a  scale  of  the  arch,  as  in  the  As- 
perifolia,  or  Rough-leaved  plants.  2.  inclusa,  enclosed; 
situated  within  the  throat  of  the  corolla.  3.  ?mday  naked; 
neither  covered  nor  enclosed. 

h.  In  respect  to  its  cells  and  aperture,  the  anther  is, 
1.  unilocularis,  one-celled.  2.  bilocularis,  two-celled. 
3.  trilocularis,  three -celled.  4.  bivahis,  two-valved.  5. 
didyma,  didymous;  gibbous  outwardly,  Avith  two  pro- 
tuberances. 6.  stcrilis,  barren;  not  forming  pollen,  or 
fecundating  matter.  7.  deflorata,  deflorate;  having  ejec- 
ted, or  excluded  the  pollen.  8.  fozcunda,  fertile,  with 
pollen.  9.  apice  dehiscens,  opening  at  the  top.  10.  latere 
dehiscens,  opening  at  the  side. 

Linnjeus  denominates  the  bursting  of  the  anthers, 
Dchisccntia*. 

i.  In  respect  to  situation,  1.  the  anthers  are  gene- 
rally situated  upon  the  tops  of  the  filaments.  2.  In  some 
plants,  however,  the  anthers  are  fixed  to  the  middle  or 
sides  of  the  filaments.  3.  In  many  plants,  having  no  fila- 
ments, the  anthers  adhere  to  the  stigma,  or  summit  of 

*  Debiscentia,  from  debisco,  to  gape,  or  open  wide. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  165 

the  female  organ.  4.  In  other  plants,  also  destitute  of 
filaments,  the  anthers  are  fixed  to  the  receptacle.  5.  In 
some,  they  are  situated  upon  the  nectary. 

C.  The  Pollen,  which  Linnaeus  is  pleased  to  call 
the  third  part  of  the  stamen,  is  the  farina,  or  prolific 
powder,  which  is  contained  in  the  anthers  of  flowers, 
and  which,  according  to  the  Swedish  naturalist,  after 
being  moistened  with  a  liquor  which  is  peculiar  to, 
and  lodged  upon,  the  stigma,  or  summit  of  the  female 
organ,  bursts  like  a  bladder,  and  gives  out,  elastically,  a 
substance  which  is  imperceptible  to  the  naked  eye.  This 
substance  Linnaeus  calls  Fomlla,  or  aura  semmalis. 

Necker  defines  the  pollen,  a  collection  of  minute 
inflammable  globules,  in  which  the  "  lympha  fcecun- 
dans,"  or  fecundating  fluid,  is  contained*.  The  pollen 
of  some  plants,  is,  certainly,  inflammable;  but  in  the 
pollen  of  many  other  plants  we  discover  nothing  of  an 
inflammable  quality.  In  many  plants,  such  as  Veratrum 
luteumf,  &.c.  the  pollen  has  a  peculiar  and  powerful 
smell,  very  similar  to  that  of  certain  animal  secretions. 

The  pollen  of  vegetables  is  of  various  colours,  but 
most  commonly  of  the  different  shades  of  yellow,  orange, 
red,  and  purple.  It  is  beautifully  conspicuous  upon  the 
anthers,  or  summits,  of  some  flowers,  particularly  the 
Tulip,  the  Lily,  &x.  When  completely  matured,  and 
fit  for  performing  the  important  ofiice,  for  which  it  is 
destined,  it  is  readily  removed  from  the  anthers,  by  the 
application  of  the  finger,  or  other  moist  body. 

*  Corollaruim,  &c.  p.  14.  t  Mchnthium  dioicum  !  of  Walter. 


166  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

To  the  naked  or  unarmed  eye,  the  pollen  appears  to 
be  a  mere  inorganic  farina,  or  powder.  But  when  it  is 
subjected  to  the  aid  of  the  microscope,  it  is  found  to  put 
on  a  great  variety  of  forms,  in  different  species  of  vege- 
tables. These  forms,  it  is  asserted,  frequently  predomi- 
nate, not  only  through  the  different  species  of  a  genus, 
but  even  through  the  different  genera  of  a  natural  family, 
or  order.  Thus,  in  Helianthus,  or  Sunflower,  the  polle- 
jiiferous  particles  assume  the  appearance  of  prickly 
balls,  or  burs.  In  the  Geranium  sanguineum,  or  Bloody 
Cranesbill,  they  are  like  perforated  globules  of  fire;  in 
the  Mallows, they  resemble  wheels  furnished  with  teeth; 
in  the  Ricinus  communis,  or  Palma  Christi,  they  are 
shaped  like  grains  of  Wheat;  in  the  Viola  tricolor,  or 
Pansies,  they  are  angulated;  in  the  Turkey- Wheat*, 
they  are  flat  and  smooth;  in  the  Borage,  like  a  thin  leaf, 
rolled  up;  in  the  Narcissus,  reniform,  or  kidney-shaped; 
and  in  the  Symphitum,  or  Comfrey,  like  double  or 
twin  globulesf.  It  is  unnecessary  to  pursue  this  subject 
through  numerous  other  vegetables,  the  pollen  of  which 
has  been  particularly  examined,  through  good  glasses, 
by  many  ingenious  naturalists. 

Tuberville  Needham,  and  other  writers  have 
shown,  that  the  pollen  of  vegetables  upon  being  put  into 
water,  immediately  bursts,  and  scatters  its  fovilla,  or 
fecundating  aura,  abroad. 

The  great  importance  of  the  pollen,  which  Linnseus 
has  called  the  "  genitura"  of  the  plant,"  will  be  very 
particularly  considered,  in  treating  of  the  generation  of 
vegetables. 

*  Kt  *  *  $ 

*  Zca  Mays,  or  Indian -com.  f  J.  G.  Walilbom 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  167 

As  the  nectar  of  vegetables  is  an  article  of  great  im- 
portance in  the  nourishment  of  bees  and  other  insects, 
so  also  the  powder  of  the  anthers  constitutes  one  of  the 
alimentary  articles  of  bees.  These  industrious  insects 
visit  the  flowers  of  an  immense  variety  of  plants,  quaff- 
ing the  nectar,  and  carrying  away,  upon  their  thighs, 
great  quantities  of  the  pollen.  This  they  lay  up,  in  the 
cells  of  their  combs,  as  food  for  the  young  bees,  whilst 
in  their  larva,  or  maggot-state.  To  the  pollen,  thus  sto- 
red up,  the  name  of  "  bee-bread"  has  been  given,  both 
in  Britain  and  in  the  United-States.  This,  as  has  been 
already  observed*,  is  "  raw  vegetable  matter,"  or  pollen 
so  little  altered  that  it  retains  its  peculiar  taste  and  smell, 
in  the  cells  of  the  comb.  Thus,  we  can  often  tell,  by  an 
examination  of  the  bee-bread,  from  what  particular  spe- 
cies of  plants  it  has  been  procured.  By  thus  depriving 
vegetables  of  their  pollen,  there  can  be  little  doubt  that 
bees,  in  many  instances,  essentially  diminish  the  fertility 
of  plantsf.  This,  perhaps,  is  more  especially  the  case 
with  respect  to  many  of  the  plants  of  the  class  Dioecia: 
for  here,  the  male  and  female  organs  of  generation  being 
situated  upon  distinct  individuals,  and  frequently  at  a 
considerable  distance  from  each  other,  the  chances  of 
impregnation  are  necessarily  fewer  than  in  the  plants  of 
the  hermaphrodite  classes,  where  the  males  and  females 
are  situated,  in  close  vicinity,  within  the  same  calyx, 
or  corolla.  On  the  other  hand,  however,  it  is  the  opinion 
of  many  writers,  thai  bees  are  no  mean  agents  in  fa- 

*  See  page  157. 

t  It  has  been  observed,  in  Pennsylvania,  and  other  parts  of  the  United- 
States,  that  the  bees  rob  certain  species  of  plants,  particularly  the  Polygonum 
Fagopyrum,  or  Buck-wheat,  of  such  immense  quantities  of  pollen,  that  great 
numbers  of  the  little  insects  are  drowned  in  crossing  our  creeks,  andrivers,  owing 
Tithe  too  heavy  load*;  of  the  powder,  which  they  attempt  to  carry  to  their  hi  vea 


16a  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

vouring  the  impregnation  of  vegetables.  We  shall  after- 
wards see,  that  the  naturalists  of  the  school  of  Linnaeus 
have  frequently  been  under  the  necessity  of  availing 
themselves  of  the  agency  of  bees,  to  explain  some  of  the 
difficulties  which  still  obstruct  the  beautiful  doctrine  of 
vegetable  generation*. 

By  robbing  plants  of  their  pollen,  do  not  bees  con- 
tribute not  a  little  to  that  vast  variety  of  double  blos- 
soms, with  which  our  gardens  are  stocked  and  beauti- 
fied ?  Some  facts,  and  some  plausible  reasoning,  might 
be  urged  in  support  of  this  conjecture. 

To  the  pollen  of  vegetables  and  the  labours  of  the 
bees  mankind  are  indebted  for  a  very  important  arti- 
cle, I  mean  wax,  or  bees-wax.  The  celebrated  R.  A.  F. 
de  Reaumur,  a  long  time  agof,  asserted,  that  the  pollen 
of  vegetables,  after  undergoing  the  digestive  process  in 
the  stomach  of  the  bee,  was  converted  into  wax.  This 
opinion  has  lately  been  confirmed  by  the  inquiries  of 
Mr.  John  Hunter %. 

With  respect  to  the  analysis  of  the  pollen  and  of 
wax,  much  still  remains  to  be  done  by  the  chemists  to 
complete  this  subject.  Experiments,  however,  seem  to 
render  it  probable,  that  the  basis  of  both  of  these  mat- 
ters is  a  fat  oil,  which,  combining  with  oxygen,  passes 
to  the  state  of  a  resin.  If  the  nitric  or  muriatic  acids 
be  digested,  for  a  considerable  time,  upon  a  fixed  oil, 
this  passes  to  the  state  of  a  matter  intimately  resein- 

•  See  Part  III. 
f  In  the  year  1740. 

$  Philosophical  Transactions,  for  the  year  1792. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  169 

bling  wax.  It  remains  to  be  proved,  what  is  the  precise 
nature  of  the  matter  by  which  the  pollen  is  converted 
into  wax,  in  the  stomach  of  the  bee. 

Experiments  will,  in  all  probability,  show,  that 
the  pollen  of  plants  (of  many  plants,  at  least)  contains  a 
very  large  portion  of  oxygen.  An  anonymous  author*, 
many  years  ago,  asserted,  that  the  pollen  of  plants  (by 
giving  out  its  phlogiston,  as  he  supposed)  brought  the 
calx  of  iron  to  the  state  of  a  metal. 

Tingry  discovered,  that  the  pollen  contains  vola- 
tile oils,  and  different  essential  oils,  that  are  soluble  in 
spirit  of  wine.  > 

The  powerful  odour  and  the  taste  of  the  pollen  of 
many  plants  would  lead  us  to  believe,  that  this  prolific 
matter  possesses  very  active  qualities,  with  respect 
to  the  human  and  other  animal  bodies ;  and  it  is  not  im- 
probable, that  it  might  be  advantageously  employed  in 
the  treatment  of  some  of  our  diseases.  If  I  do  not  greatly 
mistake,  the  pollen  of  some  of  the  cerealia  is  employed 
as  a  medicine,  in  certain  diseases,  in  some  parts  of 
Poland. 

In  the  study  of  Botany,  it  is  a  point  of  the  utmost 
importance  to  be  intimately  acquainted  with  every  cir- 
cumstance relative  to  the  stamens,  by  which  I  mean  the 
male  organs,  taken  in  the  aggregate,  and  consisting  of 
the  filaments,  the  anthers,  and  the  pollen.  Without  an 
intimate  acquaintance  with  the  natural  history  of  these 
truly  important  parts  in  the  vegetable  economy,  we  shall 

*  See  Bibliotheca  Botanica,  &c  Auctore  A.  Haltero.  Tom.  ii.  p.  199 

Z 


170  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

be  incapable  of  understanding  that  wonderful  function, 
by  which  the  world  of  vegetables  has  been  thus  far  pre- 
served from  destruction;  and  by  which  it  will,  doubtless, 
be  perpetuated  (with  the  occasional  loss  of  some  species, 
in  future,  as  heretofore,  so  long  as  our  globe  shall  exist), 
to  serve  as  the  sustenance  of  man  and  other  animals,  and 
for  innumerable  other  purposes.  Nor  does  the  utility  of 
an  acquaintance  with  the  stamens  terminate  here.  Upon 
these  organs  of  the  vegetable,  the  great  Linnaeus  has 
constructed  the  most  essential  parts  of  his  Sexual  Sys- 
tem: the  classes,  or  primary  divisions,  and  many  of  the 
orders,  or  secondary  divisions.  The  twenty-four  classes 
of  this  celebrated  system,  are  founded  upon  the  circum- 
stances of  the  number,  the  place  of  insertion,  the  pro- 
portion, the  connection,  the  disposition,  or  the  absence, 
of  the  stamens.  Hence,  it  is  obvious,  that  we  cannot 
understand  the  system  of  the  Swedish  naturalist,  with- 
out a  thorough  acquaintance  with  the  sexual  organs*. 


*.  V. 

The  Pistillum  is  the  fourth  part  of  the  fructification 
enumerated  by  Linnaeus.  He  defines  it,  "  a  viscus  or 
"  organ  adhering  to  the  fruit,  for  the  reception  of  the 
"  pollen:"  "  Viscus  fructui  adhaerens  pro  Pollinis  re- 
"  ceptionef". 

The  pistillum,  to  which  the  English  botanists  have 
given'the  name  of  Pistil  and  Pointal,  is  the  female  part 
of  the  vegetable,  wfyich  assumes  the  appearance  of  a 

•     «  4 

*  See  Part  II.  for  a  particular  investigation  of  the  physiology  of  the  stamens  { 
Tmd  Part  III.  for  an  exposition  of  the  Linnaean  System, 
f  Philosophic  Botanica,  &c.  p.  53.     §.  86. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  171 

column,  or  set  of  columns,  and  is  commonly  situated  in 
the  centre  of  the  flower,  within  the  stamens.  When 
perfect,  it  consists  of  three  parts,  the  Germen,  the  Sty- 
lus, and  the  Stigma. 

A.  The  Germen,  which  is  called  by  the  English  bo- 
tanists the  Germ,  Ovary,  or  Seed-bud,  is  the  rudiment 
of  the  fruit,  yet  in  an  embryo- state.  It  constitutes  the 
lower  part,  or  base  of  the  pistil,  and  supports  the  style 
and  the  stigma. 

a.  The  germ  varies  in  respect  to  number  in  differ- 
ent plants.  Some  plants  have  but  one  germ,  some  two, 
three,  &c.  &c.  whilst  some  have  many. 

b.  In  point  of  figure,  the  germ  is,  1.  subrotundum, 
roundish.  2.  ouatum,  ovate.  3.  oblongum,  oblong.  4. 
turbinatum,  turbinate.  5.  conicum,  conical;  in  the  form 
of  a  cone*  6.  linear e,  linear.  7.  cor datum,  cordate*  8« 
obcordatum,  obcordate.  9.  globosum,  globular.  10.  fis- 
jwtw,  cleft.  11.  bifidum,  bifid.  12.  trijidum,  trifid.  13. 
partitum,  parted.  14.  bipartitum,  two-parted.  15.  an- 
gulatum,  angular.  16.  triangulares  triangular.  17. didy- 
mum,  didymous.  18.  compressum,  compressed.  19. 
acutum,  acute.  20.  rostratum,  beaked.  21.  subulatum, 
subulate. 

c.  In  respect  to  its  surface,  the  germ  is,  1.  scabrum, 
rough.  2.  villosum,  villous.  3.  imbricatum,  imbricated. 

d.  In  regard  to  its  place,  the  germ  is,  1.  superum, 
superior;  that  is,  included  in  the  corolla,  or  the  calyx. 


172  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

2.  inferum,  inferior;  placed  beneath  the   corolla,  or 

the  calyx*. 

e.  In  respect  to  its  insertion,  the  germ  is,  1.  sessile, 
sessile.  2.  pedicellatum,  pedicelled;  standing  on  a  pedi- 
cel, or  footstalk.     3.  seta  insidens,  sitting  on  a  bristle. 

f.  In  regard  to  its  measure,  the  germ  is  1.  mini- 
mum, very  small  in  proportion  to  the  corolla.  2.  lon- 
gitudine  staminum,  as  long  as  the  stamens.  3.  longi- 
tudine  calycis,  as  long  as  the  calyx.  4.  longitudine 
nectarii,  as  long  as  the  nectary. 

Pursuing  his  favourite  subject  of  the  analogies 
which  subsist  between  animals  and  vegetables,  Lin- 
naeus has  denominated  the  germ,  the  ovarium,  or  uterus 
of  plants.  To  this  language,  I  shall  offer  no  objection. 
We  shall  afterwards  see,  that  in  the  germ  are  contained 
the  embryo-seed  of  the  plant,  which  pre-exist  in  this 
organ  (as  do  the  ova  in  the  ovaria  of  many,  if  not  all, 
animals),  and  after  receiving  the  influence  of  the  pollen, 
or  powder  of  the  stamens,  are  rendered  fertile,  and  thus 
befitted  for  the  important  business  of  the  perpetuation 
of  the  species. 

B.  The  Stylusf,  or  Style,  is  the  middle  portion  of 
the  pistil,  which,  in  many  plants,  connects  the  stigma 
with  the  germ.  I  say,  in  many  plants,  for  the  style  is 
not  present  in  all  plants,  and  is  not  essentially  necessary 
to  the  generation  of  the  plant.  In  this  respect,  it  is  upon 
a  footing  with  the  filament. 


*  See  page  137. 

t  Stylus,  from  cr\vX«^  a  column. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  173 

a.  The  style,  as  well  as  the  germ,  varies  in  res- 
pect to  number,  in  different  plants.  Some  plants  have 
but  one  style,  some  two,  three,  &c.  &c.  whilst  some 
are  furnished  with  many,  of  these  organs.  In  general, 
the  number  of  the  styles  is  equal  to  that  of  the  germs,  or 
ovaries,  each  germ  being  furnished  with  its  particular 
style.  This  is  the  structure  of  the  compound  flowers, 
the  cone-bearing  plants,  the  Rose,  the  Ranunculus,  the 
Liriodendron,  or  Tulip-tree,  and  many  others.  1.  To 
this  general  rule,  however,  there  are  exceptions;  that 
is,  there  are  vegetables,  which  have  more  than  one 
style  to  a  single  germ,  or  seed-bud.  2.  There  are 
other  plants,  such  as  the  Asperifolice,  and  most  of  the 
Lip-flowers,  which  have  a  single  style  common  to  many 
germs.  3.  In  other  plants,  again,  the  style,  at  its  origin, 
is  single,  but  soon  branches  out  into  as  many  ramifica- 
tions, as  there  are  divisions,  or  cells,  in  the  cavity  of 
the  germ.  We  discover  this  structure  in  the  plants  of 
the  two  families  of  Geranium  and  Mallow,  and  many 
of  their  relations,  principally  belonging  to  the  class 
Monadelphia  of  the  Sexual  System. 

b.  In  point  of  proportion,  the  style  is,  1.  longissi- 
mus,  very  long,  with  respect  to  the  stamens.  2.  bre- 
vissimus,  very  short.  3.  longitudine  staminum,  as 
long  as  the  stamens.  4.  crassitie  staminum,  as  thick 
as  the  stamens.  5.  crassus,  thick  with  respect  to  the 
stamens.  6.  tenuis,  slender  with  respect  to  the  stamens. 

c.  In  respect  to  its  division,  the  style  is,  1.  simplex, 
simple;  not  divided.  2.  bifidus,  bifid.  3.  trrfidus, 
trifid.     4.  bipartitus,  two  parted. 

d.  In  respect  to  its  figure,  the  style  is,  1.  teres,  co- 
lumnar.     2.  cylindricus,  cylindrical.      3.    capillar  is, 


174  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

capillary.  4.  clavatus,  club-shaped.  5.  subulatus,  subu- 
late. 6.  alatuSy  winged.  7.  tetragonus,  four-cornered.  8. 
ensiformis,  ensiform.  9.  pubescens,  pubescent;  cover- 
ed with  pubescence.     10.  villosus,  villous. 

e.  In  respect  to  its  direction,  the  style  assumes 
most  if  not  all  the  directions  which  have  been  noticed 
in  treating  of  the  filaments*. 

f.  In  respect  to  its  situation,  1.  the  style,  in  the 
greater  number  of  plants,  is  in  apice  germinis>  placed 
on  the  top  of  the  germ.  2.  ad  latus  germinisy  at  the 
side  of  the  germ :  that  is,  the  styles,  which  are  nume- 
rous, proceed  from  within  the  side  of  their  correspond- 
ing germs.  This  structure  is  observable  in  the  Rose, 
the  Raspberry,  the  Strawberry,  the  Cinquefoil,  the  Tor- 
mentil,  and  other  plants  belonging  to  the  order  Polygi- 
nia  in  the  xnth  class,  or  Icosandria,  of  the  sexual 
system. 

g.  In  point  of  duration,  the  style  is,  1.  persist ens , 
permanent ;  remaining  until  the  fruit  be  ripe  ;  as  in  the 
plants  of  the  class  Tetr adynamia.  2.  deciduus,  deci- 
duous; falling  off  with  the  other  parts  of  the  flower  ;  as 
in  the  greater  number  of  vegetables. 

We  have  seen,  that  Linnaeus  denominates  the  germ, 
the' ovarium,  or  uterus  of  plants.  With  respect  to  the 
style,  he  has  been  pleased  to  call  this  part,  the  vagina 
or  fallopian  tubef.      If  it  could  be  demonstrated,  that 

*  See  page  160.  g. 

•}■  "  Fil amenta  Vasa  Spermatica ;  antherae  Testes,  pollen  Genitura, 
»  stigma  Vulva,  stylus  Vagina,  germen  Ovarium,"  &c.  Philosophia  Bota- 
nica,  &c.  p.  92.  $.  146. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  175 

the  style,  in  all  plants,  is  really  tubular,  or  hollow,  there 
would,  I  think,  be  but  one  serious  objection  to  the  em- 
ployment of  the  word  vagina,  in  the  manner  it  is  appli- 
ed by  Linnaeus.    'And  it  must  be  confessed,   that  in 
very  many  plants  the  style  is  unequivocally  tubular : 
that  is,  there  is  an  open  or  uninterrupted  cavity  leading 
from  the  stigma  (which  is  next  to  be  considered)  to  the 
ovary,  or  germ.  In  many  other  plants,  however,  no  such 
duct  has  been  discovered,  even  when  the  style  has  been 
examined  by  a  powerful  magnifier.      But  it  does  not 
follow  from  hence,  that  no  such  duct  does  exist.    It  may 
be  too  small  to  fall  under  the  cognizance  of  our  senses  ; 
or  it  may  be  visible  only  at  a  particular  period,  viz. 
when  the  stigma  has  received  the  influence  of  the  pol- 
len ;  or,  in  other  words,  at  the  moment  of  impregnation. 
Linnaeus  has  shown,  that  in  many  plants  the  stigma  is 
dilated  at  the  moment  it  receives  the  pollen;  but  after- 
wards closes,  so  that  no  cavity  is  to  be  perceived.     In 
treating  of  the   generation  and  of  the   irritability  of 
plants*,   I  shall  resume  the  consideration  of  this  sub- 
ject.    Meanwhile,  I  must  not  pass  by  unnoticed  the 
observation  of  Linnaeusf,   respecting  the  Gratiola,  or 
Hedge -hyssop.     "  Gratiola,  oestro  venereo  agitata,  pis- 
"  tillum  stigmate  hiat,  rapacis  instar  draconis,  nil  nisi 
"  masculinum   pulverem  affectans ;  at   satiata  rictum 
"  claudit,"  &c. 

C.  The  Stigma  is  the  third  and  last  portion  of  the 
pistillum.  It  is  the  summit  or  top  of  this  female  part 
of  the  plant,  and  is  destined  to  receive  the  influence  of 
the  pollen,  and  transmit  it  to  the  germ.      In  the  Latin 

*  See  Part  II. 

t  See  the  admirable  paper,  entitled  Sponsalia  Plantarvm,  p.  90,"  in  the  first 
vol.  of  the  Amoenitates  Academic*. 


176  KLEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

language,  the  word  stigma  has  several  significations, 
none  of  which  are  agreeable  to  the  senses  in  which  it  is 
employed  by  Linnaeus.  I  wonder,  with  Professor  Mar- 
tyn,  why  the  Swede  did  not  make  use  of  the  more  clas- 
sical and  appropriate  word,  fibula*.  Dr.  Grew  called 
the  stigma,  the  knob,  or  button;  and  Dr.  Withering  the 
Summit. 

a.  The  number  of  the  stigmas  is  very  different  in 
different  vegetables.  Some  plants  have  only  one  stigma; 
some  two,  some  three,  some  four,  some  five,  &c. 

b.  In  respect  to  division,  the  stigma  is,  1.  simplex \ 
simple.  2.  fissum,  cleft.  3.  bifidum,  two-cleft.  4. 
trifidum,  three-cleft,  &c.  &c.  5.  partitum,  parted. 
6.  bipartitum,  two-parted,  &c.  7.  lobatum,  lobed. 
8.  bilobum,  two-lobed,  &c.  &c. 

c.  In  respect  to  figure,  the  stigma  is,  1.  capitatum, 
capitate  ;  approaching  in  its  form,  at  the  top,  to  the 
shape  of  a  globe.  2.  globosum,  globular.  3.  urceola- 
tum,  urceolate  ;  pitcher-shaped.  4.  ovatum,  ovate.  5. 
obtasum,  obtuse.  6.  truncatum,  truncated.  7.  oblique 
depressum,  obliquely  depressed.  8.  emarginatum, 
emarginate.  9.  planum,  flat.  10.  reniforme,  reniform. 
11.  orbiculatum,  orbicular.  12.  peltatum,  peltate  f. 
13.  coroni forme,  crown-shaped.  14.  cruciforme,  cruci- 
form ;  in  the  form  of  a  cross.  15.  stellatum,  stellate. 
16.  canaliculatum,  channelled.  -  17.  concavum,  con- 
cave. 18.  umbilicatum,  umbilicate  ;  concave,  and  or- 
bicular.    19.  plicatum,  plaited.     20.   radiatum,  radi- 

*  Fibula  ,  a  button,  a  clasp,  a  buckle,  &c.&c. 
t  See  Plate  1. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  177 

ate  ;  marked  with  striated  rays,  which  diverge  from  the 
centre.  21.  angulatum,  angular.  22.  striatum,  stri- 
ated. 23.  plumosum,  feathery.  24.  pubescens,  pube- 
scent. 25.  fliforme,  filiform.  26.  capillare,  capillary. 
27.  convolutum,  convolute.  28.  revolutum,  revolute. 
29.  flexum  sinistrorsum,  bent  to  the  left.  30.  flexum 
dextrorsum,  bent  to  the  right.  31.  barbatum,  he&vded. 
32.  imberbe,  beardless. 

d.  In  respect  to  measure,  the  stigma  is,  1.  longu 
tudine  sty/i,  as  long  as  the  style,   &c. 

e.  In  respect  to  expansion,  the  stigma  is,  1.  flm- 
briato-crispum,  fimbriate-curled,  or  fringed.  2.  folia- 
eeu?ny  foliaceous,  or  like  a  leaf.     3.  cucullatum,  cowled. 

f.  In  respect  to  its  duration,  the  stigma  is,  1.  per- 
sistens,  permanent ;  remaining  until  the  fruit  be  mature  ; 
as  in  Sarracenia*,  Podophyllum!,  and  others.  2. 
marcescens,  shrivelling,  remaining,  but  becoming  with- 
ered ;  as  in  the  greater  number  of  plants. 

I  have  already  %  mentioned  the  analogical  name  by 
which  Linnasus  has  thought  proper  to  designate  the 
stigma.  For  that  name  there  is,  I  think,  as  much, 
and  even  more,  foundation,  than  for  some  others  which 
the  burning  imagination  of  the  northern  naturalist  has 
imposed,  not  only  upon  the  organa  sexualia,  but  upon 
other  parts  of  the  plant.  It  is,  perhaps,  to  be  regret- 
ted, that  Linnaeus  so  frequently  indulges  in  the  use  of 
terms  which  might,  without  any  real  injury  to  his  writ- 

•  See  Plate  i.  t  See  Plate  xvm. 

J  See  pa^e  174.     Note. 


178  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

ings,  have  been  dispensed  with.  It  would  have  been 
well  had  he  recollected  the  words  of  Cicero,  "Nihil 
"  obsccenum,  nihil  turpe  dictu".  But  Philosophy  must 
not  be  too  squeamish  ;  and  when  I  read  the  least  chaste 
writings  of  Linnaeus,  I  will  not  say  with  the  poet : 

"  No  pardon  vile  obscenity  should  find, 

"  Though  wit  and  art  conspire  to  move  your  mind". 

Pope. 

A  knowledge  of  the  pistil,  by  which  I  mean  the 
female  organ,  taken  in  the  aggregate,  as  consisting  of 
the  germ,  the  style,  and  the  stigma,  is  of  no  less  con- 
sequence in  the  study  of  Botany,  than  is  a  knowledge 
of  the  stamens.  In  a  physiological  point  of  view,  each 
set  of  these  sexual  organs  is  entitled  to  an  equal  portion 
of  our  attention.  They  are  equally  concerned  in  the 
business  of  the  perpetuation  of  the  species.  The  pollen 
of  the  anthers  would  have  been  secreted  or  formed  in 
vain,  were  there  no  stigma,  or  germen  to  receive  and 
preserve  its  vivifick  influence. 

As  the  classes,  or  primary  divisions,  of  the  sexual 
system  of  Linnaeus,  are  founded  upon  the  stamens,  or 
male  organs  cf  generation,  so  many  of  the  orders,  or 
secondary  divisions,  are  founded  upon  the  pistils,  or 
female  organs,  which  I  have  been  considering.  All  the 
orders  of  the  first  thirteen  classes  of  this  system  are 
constructed  exclusively  upon  the  circumstance  of  the 
number  of  the  pistils.  This  circumstance  will  necessa- 
rily claim  our  attention  in  the  third  part  of  these  Ele- 
ments ;  as  will,  likewise,  the  importance  of  the  pistil 
as  a  generic  and  even  specifick  feature,  in  the  descrip- 
tion of  vegetables. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY-  179 


J.  VI. 

The  Pericarpium  *  is  the  fifth  part  of  the  fructifi- 
cation enumerated  by  Linnaeus.  He  defines  it  "  a 
"  viscus,  or  organ,  gravid  (big)  with  seeds  {that  is  a 
"  vessel  producing  seeds),  which  it  lets  drop,  when 
"  they  are  ripe".  "  Viscus  gravidum  seminibus,  quae 
u  maturadimittitt,'.  He  has  also  called  it  the  "  Ova- 
"  rium  foecundatumf",  or  "  impregnated  germ  or 
"  ovary". 

By  the  English  botanists,  it  is  denominated,  the 
Pericarp,  Seed-vessel,  or  Seed-case.  Each  of  these 
terms  may  be  employed;  for  each  is  just  and  significant. 
I  shall  however  more  generally  make  use  of  the  word 
pericarp,  as  being  most  agreeable  to  the  prevailing 
English  botanical  nomenclature  which  is  adopted  in 
these  Elements.  Dr.  Johnson's  definition  of  the  word, 
in  his  Dictionary,  is  extremely  lame,  and  exception- 
able. He  says  the  pericarp  is  "  a  pellicle  or  thin  mem- 
"  brane  encompassing  the  fruit  or  grain  of  a  plant,  or 
"  that  part  of  a  fruit  that  envelopes  the  seed". 

The  pericarp  is  the  developed  germ,  ovary,  or 
seed-bud  :  that  is,  the  germ  fecundated,  swollen,  and 
arrived  at  maturity,  after  having  received  the  influence 
of  the  pollen,  or  fecundating  powder.  Linnaeus  has, 
therefore,  very  properly  compared  this  part  of  the  fruc- 
tification to  the  fecundated  ovary  in  animals.  It  is  cer- 
tain, that,  in  general,  the  vegetable  germ  is  not  evolved 

*  From  WEg..  around  or  about,  and  kxpt:os,  fruit,  or  seed, 
t  Philosophia  Botanica,  &c.  p.  53.  $.86. 

\  Ibid.  p.  92.  (j.  146.     "  Pericarpium    Ovarium  facundatum,  unde  ovaproduoit 
foecunda". 


180  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

into  a  true  pericarp,  if  the  pollen  has  been  prevented 
from  having  access  to  the  stigma*. 

The  pericarp  is  an  organ  of  great  importance. 
Hence,  like  all  the  truly  important  parts  of  vegetables, 
and  of  animals,  it  is  very  generally  present.  Its  use  is 
obvious  ;  to  keep  and  preserve  the  seeds  until  they  are 
ripe  ;  to  serve  as  "  the  guard  of  the  seedf ",  and  then 
to  commit  them  to  the  bosom  of  the  earth,  or  to  the  air, 
and  waters. 

Some  plants  are  destitute  of  the  pericarp.  This 
is  the  case  in  the  Asperifoliae,  or  Rough-leaved  plants, 
in  the  Verticillate  plants,  and  in  the  Compound-flowers. 
In  these  families  of  vegetables,  the  place  of  the  pericarp 
is  supplied  by  the  calyx,  which  encloses  the  seed,  and 
accompanies  them  to  perfection  $  ;  or  by  the  receptacle, 
of  which  I  am  afterwards  to  speak  more  particularly. 
I  cannot  pretend  to  state,  in  this  place,  the  proportion 
of  plants  that  are  destitute  of  the  pericarp,  compared  to 
those  which  are  furnished  with  this  viscus.  It  may, 
however,  be  proper  to  observe,  that  the  compound- 
flowers  form  a  very  extensive  family,  in  most  countries 
(particularly,  perhaps,  in  North- America)  ;  and  that 
many  of  the  genera  belonging  to  the  other  orders  which 
I  have  mentioned,  embrace  a  great  number  of  species. 

LinNjEus  enumerates  eight  different  species  of  pe- 
ricarp, viz.  l.the  Capsula,  2.  the  Siliqua,  3.  the  Le- 
gumen,  4.  the  Folliculus,  5.  the  Drupa,  6.  the  Pomum, 
7.  the  JBacca,  and,  8.  the  Strobilus. 

*  See  Part  II.  f  Mr-  John  Ray.  \  See  page  125. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  181 

1.  The  Capsula*,  or  first  species  of  pericarp 
which  I  have  mentioned,  is  called  by  the  English  bo- 
tanists, Capsule,  little  chest,  or  casket.  It  is  a  mem- 
branaceous, hollow  pericarp,  which  spontaneously 
opens  or  splits  in  some  determinate  manner,  or  different- 
ly in  different  vegetables  :  "  Pericarpium  cavum,  de- 
"  terminate  dehiscensf".  Dr.  GreAv  distinguishes  all 
the  dr)'  seed-vessels,  whether  they  be  capsules  (in  the 
Linnasan  sense  of  the  word)  or  pods,  by  the  name  of 
"  seed-cases",  or  "  membranous  uteri",  in  opposition 
to  the  pericarps  of  a  pulpy  kind,  such  as  the  fruit  of  the 
Apple,  the  Quince,  the  Cherry,  the  Gooseberry,  and 
others  ;  these  last  he  nominates  fruits.  This  distinction 
of  the  great  English  philosophical  naturalist  is  more 
agreeable  to  the  prevailing  ideas  with  regard  to  all  the 
various  kinds  of  pericarp,  than  the  distinction  of  Lin- 
naeus, and  the  botanists  of  his  school.  Nevertheless, 
the  term  pericarp,  as  a  generic  term,  may,  with  great 
propriety,  be  employed. 

a.  In  respect  to  its  figure  and  substance,  the  cap- 
sula is,  1.  turbinate!,  turbinate-  2-  iujfata,  inflated. 
3.  gfobosa,  globular.  4-  dldyma,  twin,  or  didymous. 
5.  scrotiformis,  purse-like;  elevated  with  \\\o  protube- 
rances. 6-  cyl'indracca,  cylindrical.  7  colunmaris,  co- 
lumnar ;  cylindrical  and  capitate.  8.  ovata,  ovate.  9. 
subrotunda,  roundish.  10.  oblonga,  oblong.  11-  ob- 
cordata,  obcordate  ;  inversely  cordate.  12-  obtusa,  ob- 
tuse. 13.  acutninata,  acuminate-  14-  ventricosa.,  ven- 
■tricose  ;  oblong  and  very  convex-  15-  cempressa,  com- 
pressed.    16-  membranacea,  membranous-      17-  elastica, 

*  Capsula,  in  Latin,  signifies,  a  little  coffer,  or  chett,  or  C"snev. 
t  Philosophia  Botanica,  Sec.  p.  53  \-  86. 


182  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

elastic-  18 -triquetral triquetrous-  19- tetragona,  four-cor- 
nered*. 20.  trisu/ca,  three-furrowed.  21.  triloba,  three- 
lobed-  22.  quinquedendata,  five-toothed.  23.  coronata, 
crowned  ;  the  extremity  furnished  with  leaflets,  digest- 
ed into  a  crown.  24.  circumscissa,  cut  round ;  or 
bursting  all  round  horizontally,  like  a  snuff-box  ;  as  in 
Anagallis-  25.  articulata,  jointed ;  intercepted  by 
joints.  26.  coriacea,  coriaceous  ;  resembling  leather ; 
as  in  iEsculusf.  27.  carnosa,  fleshy  ;  resembling  flesh  ; 
as  in  Pontederia.  28-  lignosa,  woody  ;  of  a  woody 
texture  ;  as  in  Cedrela- 

Capsules,  in  splitting  or  opening,  are  divided 
externally  into  one  or  more  pieces,  to  which  Linnaeus 
has  given  the  name  of  Vaface  and  Vahula;%,  or  Valves. 
The  valve  is  the  outer  coat,  shell,  or  covering  of  a  cap- 
sule, or  any  other  species  of  pericarp,  or  the  several 
pieces  which  compose  it-  It  is  rather  the  door,  or  open- 
ing, by  which  the  seeds  of  the  capsule  are  to  go  out,  or 
escape. 

According  to  the  number  of  its  valves,  the  cap- 
sule is,  1.  bhahis,  bivalve,  or  two-valved  ;  splitting 
into  two  parts  or  pieces  ;  as  in  Celandine,  and  in  all  the 
siliques  and  legumes-  2-  trhafois,  trivalve,  or  three- 
valved  ;  opening  with  three  valves  ;  as  in  Violet,  JEs- 
culus,  Cistus  Helianthemum,  and  others.  3.  quadri- 
vafais,  quadrivalve  ;  or  four-valved  ;  opening  with  four 
valves  ;  as  in  Ludvigia,  Oenothera,  &c.  4.  quinque- 
vahis,  quinquevalve,   or  five-valved  ;  opening  with  five 

*  See  Plate  x.  f  See  Plate  xv.  u.  e. 

\  From  the  Latin  vafoiC,  doors  or  gates,  which  open  and  shut  on  both  sides  ; 
folding-doors.     Linnaeus  does    not  make  any  distinction  between  valva  and  val- 


vula. 


1 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  183 

valves,  as  in  Hottonia,  Flax,  Lime-tree  (Tilia),  Syrian- 
Mallow  (Hibiscus),  and  Cotton  (Gossypium). 

The  internal  divisions  of  the  capsule  are  denomi- 
nated Lo  ad  anient  a* ,  or  Cells.  Theseare  the  chambers 
appropriated  for  the  reception  of  the  seeds.  According 
to  the  number  of  these  cells,  the  capsule  is,  1.  unilocu- 
laris,  unilocular,  or  one-celled  ;  as  in  the  Primrose.  2. 
bilocularis,  bilocular,  or  two-celled  ;  as  in  the  Henbane, 
Tobacco,  and  Thorn-apple,  or  James-town- weed.  3. 
trilocidaris,  trilocular,  or  three-celled ;  as  in  the  Lily, 
the  Hyacinth,  &c  4.  mult'ilocularis,  multilocular,  or 
many-celled ;  as  in  the  different  kinds  of  Nymphaea 
and  Nelumbium,  which  are  known  by  the  names  of  Wa- 
ter Lily. 

The  capsule  has  received  different  names,  accord- 
ing to  the  number  of  the  seeds  which  it  contains.  Thus, 
we  have,  1.  capsida  dicocca,  a  dicoccous  or  two-grained 
capsule ;  consisting  of  two  cohering  grains  or  cells, 
with  one  seed  in  each.  2.  tricocca,  tricoccous  or  three- 
grained  ;  swelling  out  in  three  protuberances,  internally 
divided  into  three  cells,  with  one  seed  in  each  ;  as  in  the 
genus  Euphorbia,  or  Spurge.  3.  pentacocca,  penta- 
coccous,  or  five-grained  ;  swelling  out  in  five  protube- 
rances, or  having  five  united  cells,  each  containing  one 
seed. 

The  partitions  by  which  the  capsule  is  internally 
divided  into  cells,  are  called  by  Linnaeus  Dissepimenta  ; 
each  of  these  partitions,  dissepimentum  :  l<  a  wall  sepa- 
rating a  pericarp  internally  into  cells".     Dr.    Marty n 

*  Lxulamentum,  in  Latin,  signifies  a  case,  a  drawer,    a  bag,   &c- 


184  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

calls  this  part  of  the  plant,  the  partition  :  but  I  think  it 
better  to  use  the  word  Dissepiment. 

The  dissepiment  is  either,  1.  parallel,  dissepimen- 
tum  parallelling  or,  2.  contrary*.  The  former  ap- 
proaches in  breadth  and  its  transverse  diameter  to  the 
valves  ;  as  in  Lunaria  and  Draba.  The  latter  is  nar- 
rower  than  the  valves  ;  or,  as  Linnaeus  more  fully  ex- 
presses it  in  the  Dclincatio  Plants,  narrower,  when  the 
valves,  by  being  queezed  or  contracted,  become  con- 
cave, (c<  Angustius  iibi  valvulae  coarctatae  evadunt 
concavae)"*  This  is  exemplified  in  Biscuteila  and 
Thlaspi.  Linnaeus  borrowed  these  two  terms  from 
Tournefort :  he  observes,  that  they  are  to  be  under- 
stood with  some  allowance  as  to  the  manner  in  which 
they  are  employed-  This  is  candidly  observed-  "  I 
"  should  ha^e  conceived  (says  Dr.  Marty n)  a  parallel 
*"  partition  in  a  siliqua  or  pod  to  have  been  in  the  direc- 
11  tion  of  the  valves — a  contrary  or  transverse  one,  at 
V  right  angles  with  the  valves".  By  some  English 
writers  on  Botany,  the  name  of  transverse  dissepiment 
is  given  to  the  dissepiment  called  by  Linnaeus  con- 
trary. 

The  Columella^  is  the  central  pillar  in  a  capsule. 
It  is  the  part  which  connects  the  several  internal  parti- 
tions with  the  seed  :  "  Pars  connectens  parietes  internos 
"  cum  seminibus  J"  It  takes  its  rise  from  the  recepta- 
cle, and  has  the  seed  fixed  to  it,  all  round. 

*  Dissepimentum  contrarium- 
f  Columella,  m  Latin,  signifies  a  little  pillar,  a   tomfi-stone,  or  pillar  of  in- 
scription. 

|  Philoscphia  Botanica,  8cc.  p.  53.  ^.  86. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  185 

Representations  of  different  kinds  of  capsules 
are  given  in  this  work  *. 

2.  The  Siliqua,  Silique,  or  Pod,  is  a  two-valved 
pericarp,  having  the  seed  fixed  along  both  sutures. 
The  proper  silique  is  bilocular,  or  two-celled,  being 
furnished  with  a  partition  which  runs  the  whole  length 
of  this  kind  of  pericarp.  It  is  to  be  observed,  however, 
that  some  pericarps  which  have  the  same  form,  take  the 
name  of  siliqua,  although  they  have  no  partition,  and, 
of  course,  are  unilocular,  or  one-celled  ;  as  in  Fumitory 
(Fumaria),  and  Celandine,  or  Cheledonium. 

LiNNisus,  after  Ray,  has  distinguished  the  silique 
into  the  siliqua,  properly  so  called,  and  the  silicula,  or 
silicic.  These  two  pericarps  do  not  essentially  differ 
from  each  other :  they  differ  only  in  form  and  size. 
The  first-mentioned  species  is  much  longer  than  it  is 
broad  :  we  have  examples  of  this  kind  of  pericarp  in 
the  following  vegetables,  viz.  Mustard,  Radish, 
Wall-flower  (Cheiranthus),  Water-cresses,  Bignonia 
longissima,  and  many  others.  The  silicle  is  almost 
round,  or  at  least  makes  a  much  nearer  approach  to  the 
orbicular  form  ;  as  in  the  Lunaria  (called  Honesty  and 
Satin-flower),  in  Alyssum  (Mad- wort),  Thlaspi  (Shep- 
herd's Purse),  Iberis  (Candy-tuft),  and  others.  This 
difference  in  the  form  and  shape  of  the  silique  and  sili- 
cle, is  assumed  by  Linnaeus  as  the  foundation  of  the  two 
orders  into  which  he  has  distributed  the  plants  of  the 
xvth  class  of  his  system. 

*  See  Plates  iv,  vni,  x,  xi,  xix,  xxv,  xv,  &c.  &c. 


186  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

a.  In  regard  to  its  figure,  the  species  of  pericarp 
of  which  I  have  been  speaking  (whether  silique  or  si- 
licle)  is,  1.  compressa,  compressed.  2.  torosa,  torose  ; 
swelling  out  into  knobs,  like  the  veins  and  muscles.  3. 
torulosa,  swelling  as  above,  but  in  a  smaller  degree.  4. 
articulata,  jointed  ;  intercepted  with  tight  joints  *. 

3.  The  Legumen,  or  Legume,  is  a  pericarp  of 
two  valves,  in  which  the  seeds  are  fixed  along  one  of 
the  sutures  only.  By  this  circumstance,  it  differs  from 
the  last  mentioned  species  of  pericarp,  in  which  we 
have  seen  the  seeds  are  fixed  to  both  sutures.  The  old 
English  word  for  the  legume  was  codf,  and  the  pericarp 
ot  the  Pea,  which  is  a  true  legume,  is  still  called  a  Peas- 
cod.  "  Pod  (as  Dr.  Martyn  observes)  is  used  both  for 
"  the  legume  and  the  silique  indifferently  :  but  they  are 
"  so  distinct,  that  they  ought  not  to  have  the  same  ap- 
"  pellation.  It  seems  better,  therefore  (the  same  inge- 
nious writer  remarks),  "  to  anglicize  the  Latin  terms  : 
"  and  with  respect  to  this,  it  is  become  sufficiently  fami- 
"  liar  to  the  English  ear|".  In  the  United- States,  it 
may,  however,  be  observed,  that  the  word  cod  is  much 
less  generally  applied  to  the  legume,  or  any  other  spe- 
cies of  pericarp. 

a.  In  regard  to  its  figure,  its  substance,  &x.  the  le^ 
gume  is,  1-  subrotundum,  roundish.  2.  overturn,  ovate. 
3.  oblor.^um,  oblong.  4  line  arc,  linear.  5-  rhombeum, 
rhombed,  or  rhomb-shaped.     6-  rhomboidale,  rhomboi- 

*  See  Plate  xxvi. 
f  Thus  May,  in  the  following  lines  : 

"  Thy  corn  thou  there  may'st  safely  sow, 
<*  Where  in  full  cods  last  year  rich  pease  did  grow". 
\  The  Language  of  Botany,  &c. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  187 

dal ;  of  a  rhomboid  form.  7-  lunulatum,  crescent- 
shaped.  8.  muticum,  awnless ;  without  a  point.  9. 
obtusion,  obtuse.  10.  acuminatum,  acuminate-  11. 
spina  mucronatum,  mucronate  with  a  thorn.  12.  <venoso- 
reticulatum,  venose-reticulated  ;  the  veins  disposed  so 
as  to  form  a  net- work.  13.  cve?wso-'uaricosum,  venoso- 
varicose  ;  the  veins  dilated  so  as  to  form  varices-  14. 
striatum,  striated-  15.  i)iilosum,  villose-  16.  tubercu- 
latum, tubercled  ;  covered  with  cartilaginous  points. 
17.  scabrum,  rough.  18-  planum,  flat.  19-  membrana- 
ccum,  membranous.  20.  joliaceum,  foliaceous.  21- 
diaphanum,  diaphanous.  22-  coriaceum,  coriaceous. 
23.  gibbum,  gibbous.  24.  teres,  columnar.  25.  tcreti- 
asculum,  somewhat  columnar.  26.  cylindraceum,  cy- 
lindrical. 27.  alatum,  winged.  28-  angulis  membra- 
7iaceis,  with  membranous  angles.  29«  compressum, 
compressed  ;  as  in  Gleditsia  triacanthos,  called  Honey - 
Locust-  30.  nodosum,  knotty;  elevated  in  knots.  31. 
inflatum,  inflated.  52-  turgidum,  turgid ;  swollen,  as 
in  Ononis,  and  Crotallaria  sagittalis  (called  in  the 
United-States,  Rattle,  and  Rattle-Box).  N.  B.  The 
turgid  and  the  inflated  legume  are  thought,  by  some 
writers,  to  be  no  ways  different :  "  but  in  the  latter  (as 
Dr.  Martyn  observes)  "  I  apprehend  the  pericarp  to  be 
"  in  substance,  as  well  as  in  form,  somewhat  like  a 
"  blown  bladder ;  whereas  in  the  former  it  is  merely 
"  more  swelled  out,  and  has  a  wider  cavity  than  usual". 
We  have  a  good  example  of  the  legumen  inflatum  in 
Colutea,  or  Bladder-Senna.  33.  torosum,  torose,  or 
necklace-form  ;  gibbous,  with  protuberances  disposed 
linearly.  34-  farctum,  stuffed  ;  full  of  a  pulpy  or  fleshy 
substance.  35.  pulposum,  pulpy;  filled  with  pulp.  56. 
carnosum,  fleshy;  filled  with  a  fleshy  substance-     37. 


188  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

lignosum,  woody.  38.  subulatum,  subulate.  39.falca- 
tum,  falcate,  or  sickle-shaped  ;  compressed,  subulate, 
and  curved.  40-  sessile ;  sessile.  41.  pedicellatum,  pe- 
dicelled  ;  elevated  on  a  pedicel.  42-  rectum,  straight ; 
without  a  bend-  43.  strictum,  stiff  and  straight.  44. 
rigidum,  rigid.  45-  ascendens,  ascending,  with  an 
ascending  point-  46-  incurvatum,  incurved-  47-  arcu- 
atum,  bowed  ;  bent  like  a  bow-  48-  inflexum,  inflected. 
49.  reflexum,  reflected-     50.  rcoolutum,  revolute. 

b.  In  regard  to  its  measure,  the  legume  is,  1. 
longissimum,  very  long,  with  respect  to  the  corolla.  2. 
longum,  long.  3-  maximum,  very  large,  as  in  Gledit- 
sia.  4-  minimum,  very  small ;  as  in  the  different  kinds 
of  Clover  (Trifolium)-    4-  latissimum,  very  broad. 

c.  In  regard  to  its  structure,  the  legume  is,  1. 
articulatum,  jointed.  2.  uniloculars,  unilocular.  3. 
biloculare,  bilocular.  4.  isthmis  interceptum,  divided 
transversely,  within,  into  different  cells. 

Plants  that  are  furnished  with  the  legume,  as  a 
pericarp,  are  known  by  the  name  of  Leguminosce,  or 
Leguminous  Plants.  The  greater  number  of  these  ve- 
getables are  arranged  by  Linnaeus  under  his  xvnth 
class,  or  Diadelphia.  Of  these  plants  particular  men- 
tion will  be  made  in  treating  of  the  artificial  and  natural 
arrangements  of  vegetables  *.  It  may  here  be  observed, 
that  Dr.  Arbuthnot  and  some  other  English  writers  have 
confounded  the  siliquose  and  leguminous  plants  with  each 
other.  Dr.  Johnson  does  not  seem  to  have  had  correct 
ideas  on  the  subject \.     This,  however,   is  the  more 

*  See  Part  III. 
f  See  his  Dictionary. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  180 

excuseable,  since  the  ancients  themselves,  as  Linnasus 
observes,  confounded  under  one  name,  the  pericarps  of  the 
Tetradynamous  and  Diadelphous  plants  :  that  is,  the 
silique  and  legume.  Thus,  Columella  denominates  the 
pods  of  Beans,  "  siliquse.  Virgil  uses  sil'iqua  in  the 
same  sense,  in  the  following  lines  : 

"  Semina  vidi  equidem  multos  medicare  serentes  ; 
"  Et  nitro  prius  et  nigra  perfunderc  amurca, 
"  Grandior  ut  fetus  siliquis  fallacibus  esset". 

Grorgic.  Lib.  i.  1.  193-195. 

"  Though  steep'd  in  nitrous  juice  and  oily  lees, 
"  And  seeth'd  o'er  gentle  fires  by  slow  degrees, 
u  Oft  have  I  seen  the  temper'd  seeds  deceive, 
<l  And  o'er  the  treach'rous  fiod  the  peasant  grieve". 

SOTHEBY. 

We  are  certain,  from  a  passage  in  Pliny,  that 
Virgil  is  speaking  of  Beans,  and  of  course,  that  the 
word  siliquis  is  properly  translated  by  pod.  But  the 
word  legumen  very  frequently  occurs  in  the  writings  of 
the  Roman  authors.  In  these  it  seems  to  imply  every 
species  of  pulse,  such  as  Beans,  Pease,  &c.  Thus 
Virgil  : 

"  Alternis  idem  tonsas  cessare  novales, 

"  Et  segnem  patiere  situ  durescere  campuin. ' 

•*  Aut  ibi  flava  seres,  mutato  sidere,  farra, 

"  Unde  prius  lxtum  siliqua  quassante  legumen. 

"  Aut  tenues  fetus  vicix,  tristisque  lupini 

'«  Sustuieris  fragiles  calamos  silvamque  sonantem". 

Geokgic.  Lib.  1. 1.71-76. 

*'  Alternate  fallows  rest  th'  exhausted  earth, 

"  And  gradual  fit  the  soil  for  future  birth  ; 

il  Or  sow  with  golden  corn  the  furrow'd  clod, 

"  W  here  the  bean  harvest  burst  the  shatter'd  pod, 


190  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

11  Or  the  light  vetch  and  bitter  lupine  grew, 
"  Bow'd  to  the  gale,  and  rattled  as  it  blew". 

SOTHEBY. 

Even  Linnaeus  himself  has  sometimes  confound- 
ed the  terms  silioua  and  lesrumen.     Thus  in  his  Prce- 

x  o 

lectiones  in  Or  dines  Naturales  Plant  arum  ^  he  calls  the 
pericarp  of  the  Lomentaceee*  a.  "  siliqua"  :  but  at  a  sub- 
sequent period,  he  denominated  it  a  legumen. 

For    representations   of   the   Legume,   see   Plate 

XXI. 

4.  The  Folliculusf,  or  Follicle,  is  a  one-valved 
pericarp,  which  opens  longitudinally  only  on  one  side, 
and  having  its  seed  loose  within  it,  that  is  not  bound  to 
the  suture.  In  the  writings  of  Linnaeus,  the  terms  fol- 
liculus  and  conceptaculum  (conceptacle)  are  entirely  sy- 
nonymous. The  latter  term  occurs  in  the  Philosophia 
JBotanica,  the  former  in  the  Delineatio  Plant  a,  and  in 
the  early  and  late  editions  of  the  Genera  Plantarum. 

We  have  examples  of  this  species  of  pericarp  in 
the  genera  Nerium,  Stapelia,  Cynanchum,  Periploca, 
Apocynum,  Asclepias,   Embothrium,   and  others. 

5.  The  Drupa,  or  Drupe,  is  a  species  of  pericarp 
which  is  destitute  of  valves,  and  contains  a  nut  or  stone 
within  which  there  is  a  kernel.  The  drupe  is  mostly  a 
moist  and  succulent  fruit,  as  in  the  Plum,  the  Cherry, 
the  Apricot,  the  Peach,  and  the  Olive  :  but  sometimes, 
it  is  dry,  as  in  the  Almond.     To  these  two  species  of 

*  See  Part  III.   Class  x.     Decandiua. 
t  Folliculus,   in  Latin,   signifies  a  little  leather   bag,   a  husk  of  Wheat,  or 
•ther  grain. — See  page  87. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  191 

drupa  have  been  given  the  names  of  1.  succulenta,  succu- 
lent, or  juicy  ;  containing  a  fluid,  and,  2.  sicca,  dry,  or 
juiceless  ;  opposed  to  the  preceding  term. 

The  term  drupa  is  sanctioned  by  classical  autho- 
rity. It  is  employed  by  Pliny,  who  uses  the  word  for 
the  fruit  of  the  Olive*.  The  term  is  synonymous  to 
Tournefort's  "  fructus  mollis  ossiculo",  or,  soft  fruit 
with  a  stone.  It  is,  also,  equivalent  to  the  term  Prunus, 
as  employed  by  other  botanists.  The  nut,  or  stone, 
which  in  the  drupe  is  surrounded  by  the  soft,  pulpy 
flesh,  is  a  kind  of  woody  cup,  which  commonly  con- 
tains a  single  kernel,  called  Nucleus.  The  hard  shell 
thus  enveloping  the  kernel,  is  denominated  Putamen. 

As  Linnaeus  is  not  always  consistent,  so  the  reader 
will  not  be  surprized  to  find,  that  the  definition  which 
has  just  been  given  of  the  drupe,  does  not  apply  to 
every  pericarp  designated  by  this  name  in  the  Genera 
Plantarum.  For  not,  again,  to  mention  the  Almond, 
Linnaeus  calls  the  pericarp  of  the  Elm  (Ulmus)  a  drupe, 
although  its  substance  is  like  parchment,  and  its  seed 
are  not  contained  within  a  stone. 

Beside  the  vegetables  which  I  have  mentioned, 
the  following  indigenous  plants  furnish  good  examples 
of  the  drupe,  viz.  the  Sour-Gum  and  Sour-Olive  of  the 
United- States  (Nyssa  integrifolia  and  N.  denticulata) ; 
different  species  of  Laurus,  such  as  Sassafras  (Laurus 
Sassafras),  Spice-wood  ^Laurus  Benzoin),  and  others. 

The  term  drupe  gave  name  to  an  order,  Drupacex, 
in  the  former  editions  of  Linnaeus's  Fragments  of  a  na~- 

"  Lib.  xv.  cap.  Tit. 


192  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

tural  method.  This  order  (the  thirty-eight)  compre- 
hended the  Almond,  the  Peach,  the  Plumb,  the  Apri- 
cot, the  Cherry,  and  the  Bird- seed  :  but  they  were  af- 
terwards referred  to  the  order  Pomaces,  some  account 
of  which  is  given  in  the  last  part  of  this  work*. 

6.  The  Pomum,  or  Pomef ,  or  Apple  J,  is  a  pulpy 
pericarp,  without  valves,  but  containing  a  membranous 
capsule^,  with  a  number  of  cells  or  cavities,  for  the 
lodgment  of  the  seeds.  This  species  of  pericarp  has 
no  external  opening  or  valve.  At  the  end  opposite  to 
the  peduncle,  or  footstalk  supporting  the  pome,  there  is 
frequently  a  small  cavity,  to  which  the  gardeners  have 
given  the  name  of  the  eye  of  the  fruit. 

The  Apple,  the  Pear,  the  Quince,  the  Gourd, 
the  Cucumber,  the  Melon,  and  many  others,  furnish 
us  with  instances  of  this  species  of  pericarp.  Several 
of  these  plants  belong  to  Linnzeus's  order  Pomacese,  just 
mentioned. 

a.  In  regard  to  its  figure,  the  pomum  is,  1.  ob- 
longam,  oblong.  2.  ovatu???,  ovate*  3.  globosumy  glo- 
bular. 4.  subrotimdwn,  roundish ;  not  to  mention 
many  other  forms  ;  for  the  form  of  fruits  is  immensely 
varied  by  climate,  and  by  soil. 

b.  With  respect  to  its  cells,  this  species  of  peri- 
carp is  triloculare,  three-celled,  &c 

*  See  Class  XII.     Icosandria. 

t  Dr.  Mart) n.  \  Dr.  I.E.  Smith. 

\  "  Pericarpium  farctum  evalve,  Capsulam  coatijiens". 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  193 

7.  The  Bacca,  or  Berry,  is  a  succulent  or  pulpy  pe- 
ricarp, without  valves,  and  containing  naked  seeds,  or 
seeds  which  have  no  other  covering.  The  seeds,  in  this 
species  of  pericarp,  are  sometimes  dispersed  promiscu- 
ously through  the  pulpy  substance,  as  in  the  Water- 
Lily  :  but  they  are  more  generally  placed  upon  recepta- 
cles, or  foot- stalks,  within  the  pulp  ;  as  in  the  Currant, 
the  Gooseberry,  the  Raspberry,  the  Hydrastis,  called 
in  the  United- States,  Yellow-root,  and  many  others. 
To  the  former  kind  of  seed,  Linnaeus  has  given  the 
name  of  semlna  ?iiclulantia,  or  nestling  seed. 

a.  The  berry  assumes  a  considerable  variety  of  forms. 
It  is,  however,  very  frequently  round,  or  oval,  and  is 
often  furnished  with  an  umbilicus,  or  small  cavity,  at 
the  end  opposite  to  the  foot-stalk,  as  is  the  case  in  the 
Apple,  and  other  species  of  the  pomum.  This  species 
of  berry  is  called,  by  Linnaeus,  bacca  umbilicata> 

b.  According  to  the  number  of  seeds  which  it  con- 
tains, the  bacca  is,  1.  monosperma,  one-seeded ;  con- 
taining a  single  seed  ;  as  in  Plinia,  &c.  2.  disperma, 
two-seeded  ;  containing  two  seeds  ;  as  in  Chiococca. 
3.  polysperma,  many-seeded  ;  containing  several  seeds  ; 
as  in  the  Persimmon  (Diospyros  virginiana),  Wither- 
ingia,  May-apple  (Podophyllum  peltatum),  and  others. 

In  the  use  of  the  term  bacca,  or  berry,  Linnaeus 
is  sometimes  as  inconsistent  as  in  the  use  of  the  term 
drupe.  Thus,  he  calls  the  pericarp  of  Lesser-Burdock 
(Xanthium)  a  berry  :  but  it  is  dry,  and  contains  within 
it  a  nut,  which  is  furnished  with  two  cells  !  Again,  he 
calls  the  pericarp  of  Capsicum,  a  berry.     But  this  has 

c  c 


194  ELEMENTS  OF   BOTANY. 

no  pulp,  and  is  hollow  within.  The  following  pericarps, 
though,  certainly,  very  different  from  each  other,  are 
all  denominated  by  Linnaeus,  berries,  viz.  Sumach 
(Rhus),  Nightshade  (Solatium),  Sow-bread  (Cycla- 
men), Medlar  (Mespilus),  Orange  and  Lemon  (Citrus 
Aurantium  and  C.  medica),  Yew  (Taxus),  and  Pine- 
apple, or  Bromelia. 

c.  The  berry  is  said  to  be  proper,  or  improper.  The 
former  is  formed  of  the  pericarp,  or  seed-vessel.  The 
latter  is  formed  of  any  of  the  other  parts  of  the  fructifi- 
cation. Thus,  in  the  Mulberry,  the  Rose,  the  Blite 
(Blitum),  and  Myrtle-leaved  Sumach  (Rhus  Coriaria), 
the  large,  fleshy,  and  succulent  calyx  becomes  a  berry. 
In  the  Strawberry  and  Cashew-nut  (Anacardium),  it  is 
formed  from  the  receptacle  :  in  the  Raspberry  and  Ado- 
nis, of  a  seed  :  in  the  Marvel  of  Peru  (Mirabilis)  of  the 
nectary  :  in  the  Garden  Burnet  (Poterium  Sanguisorba) 
of  the  tube  of  the  corolla,  which  hardens  and  shuts, 
for  the  purpose. 

Certain  fruits,  such  as  Mulberry,  Raspberry, 
Blackberry,  not  to  mention  many  others,  which  are  ge- 
nerally regarded  as  berries,  have,  with  more  propriety, 
been  denominated  Compound  and  Spurious  Berries : 
for  in  these,  each  of  the  component  parts,  which  are 
called  acini,  or  granules,  may,  very  properly,  be  consi- 
dered as  a  distinct  berry,  containing  a  single  seed,  im- 
mersed in  the  pulpy  matter. 

The  berry  does  not  spontaneously  gap  or  burst,  as 
do  the  four  first  species  of  pericarp  which  I  have  men- 
tioned, viz.  the  capsule,  the  silique  and  silicle,  the  le- 
gume, and  the  follicle,  or  conceptacle.    Birds  and  other 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  195 

species  of  animals,  as  we  shall  afterwards  see,  are  very 
instrumental  in  the  dissemination  or  dispersion  of  va- 
rious kinds  of  berries.  "  Finis  Baccae,  says  Linnaeus, 
"  ut  semina  ab  animalibus  serantur  :  e.  arr.  Viscum*". 


For  representations  of  different  kinds  of  berry, 
see,  in  this  work,  Plates  i,  ix,  xiv,  xvin. 

8,  The  Strobilusf,  or  Strobile,  is  the  last  species 
of  pericarp  enumerated  by  Linnaeus.  He  defines  it,  a 
pericarp  formed  from  an  anient  by  the  induration  of  the 
scales.  This  is  the  definition  as  given  in  the  Termini 
Botanici.  In  the  Delineatio  Plants,  it  is  thus  expres- 
sed, "  Strobilus  imbricatus  amenti  coarctati".  That 
is,  the  strobile  is  made  up  of  scales  that  are  imbricate, 
or  lie  over  each  other,  from  an  anient  contracted  or 
squeezed  together,  in  this  state  of  maturity.  "  This 
"  term  includes  (as  Dr.  Martyn  observes)  not  only 
"  the  cone  of  former  writers,  but  also  some  other 
"  fruits,  which  recede  considerably  in  structure  from 
"  that  sort  of  pericarp  ;  as  that  of  Magnolia",  Tulip-tree 
(Liriodendron),  and  others.  It  must  be  evident,  there- 
fore, that  it  is  improper  to  translate  strobilus  by  cone,  as 
has  been  done  by  some  writers. 

The  strobile  assumes  a  variety  of  forms  in  different 
vegetables. 

*  Philosophia  Botanica,  &.c.  p.  75.  $.  llo. 

f  Strobilus  has  very  different  significations  in  the  Latin  language  ;  it  signifies 
a  wild  Pine-tree,  a  Pine-apple,  an  Artichoke,  and,  also,  a  whirl-wind. 


196  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

Although  Linnaeus,  in  the  later  editions  of  his 
works,  has  discarded  the  term  cone,  and  adopted  that 
of  strobile,  he  has,  nevertheless,  retained  an  order  of 
vegetables,  which  he  calls  Cojiiferce,  or  Cone-bearing, 
of  which  notice  will  be  taken  in  a  subsequent  part  of  the 
work*.  To  this  order  belong  the  Fir,  the  Pine,  the 
Cypress,  the  Thuja,  and  others. 

Beside  the  eight  species  of  pericarp  above  men- 
tioned, four  other  species  are  enumerated  by  Professor 
Scopoli,  of  Pavia.  These  are  the  Theca,  the  Grana- 
tum,  the  Cysta,  and  the  Scrinum*  Of  each  of  these,  it 
is  proper  that  I  should  take  some  notice. 

9.  The  Thecaf  sde  fined  to  be  a  double  involucre 
of  the  seed,  the  exterior  covering  bursting  open;  the  in- 
terior one,  which  is  either  pulpy,  membranaceous,  hairy, 
or  woolly  or  brittle,  envolving  the  seed.  "  Fructus 
li  cum  involucro  duplici ;  exterius,  dehiscens,  interius, 
"  pulposum,  membranaceum,  pilosum,  lanatum  aut 
"  fragile,  semina  obvolvensj".  We  have  examples  of 
this  species  of  pericarp  in  the  Euonymus,  or  Spindle- 
tree,  and  in  the  Celastrus,  or  Staff-tree,  and  several 
others.  Linnaeus  was  not  unacquainted  with  this  spe- 
cies of  pericarp.  He  did  not,  however,  consider  it  as  a 
pericarp,  but  as  the  proper  and  exterior  coat  or  covering 
of  the  seed|j,  which  falls  off  spontaneously,  or  encloses 
the  seed  partially.  I  think,  however,  that  the  theca 
may  very  properly  be  considered  as  a  species  of  pericarp. 
In  this  opinion,  I  follow  not  only  the  learned  Scopoli 

*  See  Part  iij.  Class  xxi.     Monoecia. 

t  Theca,    in    Latin,    signifies  a  sheath  or  case,  also  a  box  or  bag,  and  the 
husk  of  corn. 

%  Necker.     See  his  Corollarium,  &c.  p.  28.  (J  Arillus. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  197 

himself,  but  also  Giseke,  and  some  other  writers.  By 
some  English  botanists,  the  theca  has  been  denominated 
the  Case- 

10.  The  Granatum*,  or  Gran  ate,  is  also  a  double 
involucre  ;  one  of  the  covers  being  of  a  corky  or  coria- 
ceous texture,  the  other  succulent.  In  this  species  of 
pericarp,  however,  of  which  we  have  the  most  familiar 
instance  in  the  Punica  Granatum,  or  Pomegranate, 
neither  of  the  involucres,  or  covers,  splits  or  opens. 

11.  The  Cystaf,  or  Cyst,  consists  of  three  covers, 
one  of  which  is  membranaceous,  another  succulent  or 
fleshy,  and  the  third  and  most  interior  also  membrana- 
ceous or  brittle.  Neither  of  these  covers  splits  or  opens. 
"  Cysta,  fructus  minime  dehiscens  e  germine  oriens, 
"  triplici  involucre  Exterius,  membranaceum,  fragi- 
"  leve  semina  involvens".  The  Berberis,  or  Barberry, 
supplies  an  example  of  this  species  of  pericarp. 

12.  The  ScrinumJ,  or  Serine,  is  also  composed  of 
three  covers,  viz.  nn  exterior  one,  which  is  of  a  woody 
texture,  and  does  not  split  at  all ;  a  middle  one,  which 
is  pulpy,  and  an  interior  one,  which  is  membranaceous, 
envelopes  the  seed,  and  spontaneously  splits,  or  opens  : 
"  Fructus  ex  involucre  triplici  compositum.  Exterius, 
"  lignosum  minime  dehiscens,  medium  pulposum,  in- 
"  terius  sponte  dehiscens,  membranaceum,  semina  fo- 
"  vens". 

*  Granatum  is  used  by  Pliny  (Lib.  xx.  cap.  xiv.)  as  the  name  of  the  Punica 
Granatum,  or  Pomegranate -tree. 

t  Cysta,  or  rather  Cbta,  signifies,  in  Latin,  a  basket,  or  chest  for  books, 
money,  See. 

|  Scrinum,  or  scrinium,  signifies  a  casket  or  coffer,  an  escritore,  a  book- 
case, &c. 

^  Necker.     Corollarium,  &c.  p.  17,  18. 


198  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

I  do  not  know  that  names  for  all  of  these  four  spe- 
cies of  pericarp  have  been  as  yet  introduced  into  the 
English  botanical  nomenclature.  I  think  we  may  use 
the  following,  viz.  Theca  (without  any  alteration),  the 
Granate  (sufficiently  distinct  from  the  compound  stone 
called  granite),  the  Cyst,  and  the  Serine. 

§.  VII. 

The  Semen,  or  Seed,  is  the  sixth  part,  and  the 
"  end  and  aim",  of  the  fructification-  It  is  defined  by 
Linnaeus,  the  deciduous  part  of  a  vegetable,  containing 
the  rudiments  of  a  new  or  other  vegetable  of  the  same 
species,  and  fertilized  by  the  aspersion  or  sprinkling  of 
the  pollen,  or  fecundating  powder  :  "  pars  vegetabilis 
"  decidua,  novi  rudimentum,  Pollinis  irrigatione  vivi- 
"  ficatum*". 

The  parts  of  a  seed,  properly  so  called,  are  enu- 
merated by  the  Swedish  naturalist,  as  follows ;  viz.  1- 
the  Corculum-  2.  the  Cotyledon.  3.  the  Hilum-  4. 
the  Arillus.  5.  the-  Coronula,  and,  6.  the  Ala.  Of 
each  of  these  parts  I  shall  give  some  account,  though  not 
in  the  precise  order  in  which  I  have  mentioned  them. 
I  shall,  also,  take  notice  of  some  other  parts  of  the  seed, 
unnoticed  by  Linnaeus  ;  for  since  his  time  the  subject 
has  excited  much  more  attention  than  he  has  devoted 
to  it. 

A.  I  begin  with  the  Hilunrf.  This  part,  which 
is  frequently  called  the  Eye,  is  an  external  cicatrix, 

*  Philosophia  Botanica,  ike.  p  54.  ^.  86. 

|  The  word  hilum,  in  the  Latin  language,  signifies  the  little  black  of  a  Bean, 
and,  also,  a  very  nothing.     In  this  sense  it  is  used  by  Cicero  and  by  Lucretius. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  199 

mark  or  scar  of  the  umbilical  chord  of  some  seeds, 
where  they  adhere  to  the  pericarp.  In  other  words,  it 
is  the  scar  formed  by  the  breaking  off  or  separation  of 
the  stalk  to  which  it  was  affixed,  and  by  which  it  re- 
ceived its  nourishment,  whilst  in  the  pericarp,  or  vege- 
table womb.  In  the  Delineatio  Plafitce,  Linnaeus  deno- 
minates the  hilum,  "  cicatrix  umbilicalis",  and  in  his 
Philosophia  Botanica  he  thus  defines  it :  "  Cicatrix  ex- 
"  terna  seminis  ab  ejusdem  affixione  in  fructu*".  This 
part  of  the  seed  is  more  or  less  conspicuous  in  different 
seeds.  In  the  following,  it  is  very  large  and  conspi- 
cuous, viz.  the  Garden-Beanf  (Vicia  Faba),  in 
the  Cardiospermum,  or  Heart-seed ;  and  in  the  Sta- 
phylea  trifolia,  or  Bladder-nut. 

B.  Besides  the  hilum,  we  observe,  in  various 
species  of  seeds,  particularly  when  in  their  green  state, 
a  very  minute  foramen,  or  hole,  of  which  I  think  Lin- 
naeus has  taken  no  notice.  This  aperture  is  perceptible, 
even  without  the  assistance  of  a  glass,  in  the  full-grown 
Garden-Bean.  In  this  species  of  seed,  it  is  situated  at 
the  end  of  the  hilum,  and  immediately  at  the  point  of 
the  radicle,  which  is  presently  to  be  mentioned j:. 

It  is  uncertain  whether  this  foramen  be  present  in 
all  seeds.  Some  writers  II  have  supposed,  that  it  is. 
Possibly,  it  is  constant  in  all  seeds-  We  cannot  doubt 
that  it  exists  in  many  in  which  neither  the  armed  or  un- 
armed eye  has  detected  it.  It  is  so  minute,  that  it  may 
readily  escape  our  notice,  especially  in  small  seeds,  when 
they  are  perfectly  ripe  and  dry. 

*  Page  54.  \.  86. 

f  See  Plate  v.     Fig.  A.  1.     Fig,  1).  X. 

%  See  Plate  v.     Fig.  A.  A. 

||  Mr.  Curtis. 


200  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

The  use  of  this  foramen  is  unknown  to  us.  Dr. 
Grew,  who  was  acquainted  with  it,  supposed,  that  the 
moisture,  which  the  Bean  absorbs,  when  it  is  commit- 
ted to  the  earth,  and  by  which  it  becomes  distended, 
finds  a  passage  through  this  aperture.  The  late  Mr. 
Curtis  made  an  experiment  to  ascertain  the  truth  of  this 
opinion.  He  covered  the  aperture  in  six  Peas  (Pisum 
sativum),  with  a  strong  spirit  varnish,  and  placed  them 
in  a  pot  of  moist  earth,  along  with  six  other  Pease, 
which  were  of  the  same  weight.  The  following  day, 
he  took  them  out  of  the  pot,  and  upon  weighing  them, 
he  found,  that  the  varnished  were  nearly  as  heavy  as  the 
unvarnished  seed,  and  that  there  was  but  little  difference 
in  the  size  of  the  Pease  thus  treated.  From  this  expe- 
riment, the  ingenious  experimenter  concludes,  "  that 
"  the  moisture  which  the  Pea  absorbs,  enters  the  Co- 
"  tyledons  by  some  other  channel  than  the  aperture, 
"  most  probably  the  whole  surface  of  the  husk  is  perme- 
"  able*".  I  think  it  probable,  that  the  whole  surface 
of  the  husk  is  really  permeable  :  but  it  must  be  ob- 
served, that  Mr.  Curtis's  experiment  is  not  conclusive. 
His  Pease  were  not  left  for  a  sufficient  time  in  the  earth, 
and  it  does  appear,  that  the  seed  in  which  the  foramina 
were  not  varnished  had  absorbed,  in  the  course  of  about 
one  day,  more  moisture  than  the  others. 

C.  By  the  Arillus,  Arilf,  or  TunicJ,  Linnaeus,  as  I 
have  already  observed,  means  a  particular  covering  of  the 
seed,  to  which  other  writers  have  given  the  name  of  pe- 
ricarp. I  shall  not  employ  arillus,  m  the  Linnsean  sense 
of  the  word,  but  shall  speak  of  the  coverings  of  the  seed 
under  other  names. 

*  A  Companion  to  the  Botanical  Maga/.ine,  &x.  p.  6. 
t  Dr.  Martyn.  \  Dr.  I.  E.  Smith. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  201 

By  some  writers*,  the  exterior  covering  of  the 
seed  is  denominated  the  Cutis,  or  Husk.  Gaertnerf, 
who  has  devoted  more  attention  to  the  seed  than  any- 
other  writer,  divides  the  Proper  integuments  of  seeds 
( Integumenta  seminum  propria),  into  the  Testa,  or 
Shell,  and  the  Membrana  interna,  or  Internal  Membrane. 
These  are  the  coats  which  invest  the  nucleus  (kernel) ; 
they  do  not  separate,  except  under  germination,  and 
even  then,  not  spontaneously  :  they  are  burst  irregularly 
by  the  swelling  of  the  cotyledons. 

1.  When  the  seed  is  furnished  with  two  proper 
coats,  the  shell  is  the  outer  one  :  when  there  is  only  one 
coat,  this  is  accounted  the  shell ;  and  when  there  are 
more  than  two  coverings,  the  second  from  the  nucleus 
is  named  the  shell. 

The  shell  is  deemed  an  essential  part  of  the  seed, 
because  the  kernel,  which  originally  was  wholly  fluid, 
could  not  have  been  formed  unless  a  coat  had  been 
placed  round  it.     This  integument  is  never  wanting. 

a.  In  regard  to  its  consistence,  &c.  the  testa  is,  1. 
membranacea,  membranous.  2.  pellucida,  pellucid ;  as 
in  Rice  (Oryza).  3.  opaca,  opaque;  dry  and  almost 
friable  ;  as  in  Messerchmidia.  4.  chartacea,  paper-like, 
and  somewhat  elastic  and  very  tough  ;  as  in  the  Indian- 
corn  (Zea  Mays).  5.  coriacea,  coriaceous ;  thicker 
than  the  preceding.  6.  spongiosa,  fungosa,  and  suberosa, 
spongy,  fungous,  or  cork-like ;  formed  of  a  porous 
substance.     7.  carnosa,  fleshy.       8.  Crustacea,    crusta- 

0  £. 

*  Curtis,  &c. 
t  See  his  great  and  classical  work,    De  Fructibus   &   Seminibus  Plantarum. 
Stutgardis:  1783,  &  Tubing* :  1791. 

D    d 


202  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

ceous ;  thin,  and  not  capable  of  being  softened  by- 
water,  or  cut  by  a  knife,  but  easily  broken  by  the  fingers; 
as  in  the  Palms.  9-  ossea  and  lapidea,  differing  from 
the  preceding,  only  in  thickness  and  hardness- 

b.  The  testa  is,  1.  bilociilaris,  or  two-celled ;  as 
in  Sapindus.  2.  Most  generally,  however,  it  is  unilo- 
cularis,  unilocular,  or  one-celled,  containing  a  single 
kernel* 

2-  The  internal  membrane  is  generally  present, 
but  is,  nevertheless,  often  wanting.  This  integument 
always  closely  invests  the  kernel,  but  readily  secedes 
from  the  shell.  It  is,  1-  membranacca,  or  membranous  ; 
or,  2.  subspoiigiosa,  somewhat  spongy-  The  former  is 
the  most  common- 

The  Chalaza  is  situated  in  the  internal  mem- 
brane. This  is  a  part  of  the  seed  of  which  the  learned 
Gaertner  has  taken  particular  notice.  It  is  a  small  deep- 
coloured  areola,  or  a  small  spongy  Qr  callous  tubercle 
on  the  outer  surface  of  the  internal  membrane  of  the 
seed  ;  it  is  found  in  many  but  not  in  all  seeds,  and  is 
either  placed  near  the  external  umbilicus,  or  diametri- 
cally opposite  to  it.  The  latter  situation  is  the  most 
common. 

3-  The  Accidental  integuments,  as  Gaertner  calls 
them,  are  superadded  to  the  testa,  or  shell,  of  the  seed, 
and  either  wholly  or  partially  cover  it  in  such  a  manner, 
that  they  may  be  easily  removed. 

The  first  of  these  accidental  coverings  is  called  by 
Gaertner,  the  epidermis^  or  cuticle.     It  is  a  thin  pellicle, 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  203 

which  invests  the  whole  seed,   and  never  spontaneously 
separates  from  it. 

The  epidermis  is,  1.  membranacea,  membranous. 
2.  mucilaginosa,  mucilaginous.  This  is  only  observed, 
when  seeds,  by  being  thrown  into  water,  have  their  sur- 
face softened  and  resolved  into  a  jelly,  or  mucilage. 
This  is  very  observable  in  the  seed  of  the  Quince 
(Pyrus  Cydonia),  and  in  those  of  the  Siliquose  plants. 

Gartner  retains  the  term  arillus,  or  aril,  as  one  of 
the  accidental  integuments,  which  covers  the  seed, 
either  wholly  or  partially,  adhering  only  to  the  navel. 
Of  the  aril,  I  have  already  spoken  under  the  head  of  pe- 
ricarp, and  have  nothing  further  to  say  concerning  it,  in 
this  place. 

D.  The  Nucleus,  or  Kernel,  is  the  part  which  fillsthe 
internal  cavity  of  the  various  integuments  which  have 
been  mentioned.  It  is  of  an  almond-fleshy  substance*, 
and  generally  composed  of  four  distinct  parts,  viz.  1. 
the  Albumen.  2.  the  Vitcllus.  3.  the  Cotyledon  ;  and, 
4.  the  Embryo.  Of  these  I  shall  treat  in  the  order  in 
which  I  have  mentioned  them. 

1-  The  Albumen,  or  White  of  the  Seed,  is  that 
part  of  the  kernel  which  invests  the  cotyledons,  and  is 
thought  to  afford  the  same  support  to  the  germinating 
embryo,  that  the  white  of  the  egg  does  to  the  chick. 
Both  in  respect  to  its  consistence  and  colour,  the  albu- 
men, in  many  seeds,  greatly  resembles  the  white  of  a 
boiled  egg.     It  is  not  deemed  an  essential  part  of  the 

*  That  is  retaining  the  impression  of  the  nail.     Gaertner  calls  it  amygdalino- 
canwsum. 


204  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

seed.  It  is  wanting  in  many  seeds,  but,  upon  the  whole, 
appears  to  be  present  in  a  majority  of  the  many  seeds 
which  were  examined,  with  a  truly  scientific  patience, 
by  Gaertner.  It  is  present  in  the  plants  of  the  following 
natural  orders,  viz.  the  Grasses,  the  Palms,  the  Lili- 
aceous plants,  the  Umbelliferse,  the  Coniferas,  and  the 
Multisiliquae,  not  to  mention  some  others.  The  albumen 
is  wanting  in  the  seeds  of  the  Compositae,  the  Verticil- 
latae,  the  Siliquosae,  the  Cucurbitaceae,  and  the  Asperi- 
foliae*  In  the  Leguminous  plants,  a  very  great  number 
of  the  genera  are  destitute  of  albumen,  whilst  a  few  are 
supplied  with  it.  Among  the  plants  of  the  class  Mona- 
delphia,  there  is  a  greater  number  of  genera  with  albu- 
minous than  with  exalbuminous  seeds. 

Although  the  albumen  is  thus  wanting  in  many 
seeds,  it  must  be  admitted,  when  present,  to  be  a  sub- 
stance of  considerable  importance.  It  supports  and  de- 
fends the  embryo,  whilst  this  essential  part  is  imprison- 
ed in  the  seed,  and  serves  for  the  first  nutriment  of  the 
embryo,  when  it  begins  to  germinate.  It  has  no  con- 
nection with  the  embryo,  whether  it  surround,  or  is 
surrounded  by,  the  embryo  :  it  is  always  so  distinct,  as 
to  be  very  readily  detached  from  it. 

The  part  of  the  kernel  of  which  I  am  speaking, 
was  not  unknown  to  Dr.  Grew,  who  gave  it  the  name 
which  it  now  retains.  Gleichen  calls  it  the  "  seminal 
placenta",  whilst  Meese  and  Boehmer  designate  it 
by  the  name  of  cotyledon.  Linnaeus  asserted,  that  the 
vegetable  es^g  is  destitute  of  albuminous  matter,  and 
that  it  is  of  no  use  in  the  seed.  He  would  have  said, 
with  more  truth,  as  Gaertner  observes,  that  albumen  is 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  205 

not  found  in  all  seed.     Moreover,  some  seeds  have  but 
a  very  small  quantity  of  this  substance. 

2.  The  Vitellus,  or  Yolk,  is  placed  between  the 
embryo  and  the  albumen,  and  is  different  both  from  the 
cotyledons  and  the  albumen.  It  is  so  closely  connected 
with  the  embryo,  that  it  cannot  be  detached  from  it, 
without  injuring  the  substance  of  the  latter.  It  is  never 
carried  without  the  shell  of  the  seed,  whilst  this  is  ger- 
minating, nor  does  it  become  a  seminal  leaf,  as  the  co- 
tyledons do,  but  is  entirely  exhausted  by  the  seminal 
plant  and  converted  into  its  nourishment ;  in  both  which 
respects  it  resembles  the  albumen.  In  albuminous 
seeds,  or  seeds  furnished  with  albumen,  the  vitellus  oc- 
cupies the  middle  place  between  it  and  the  embryo,  in 
such  a  manner,  that  it  can  be  easily  separated  from  the 
albumen,  without  any  injury  to  its  form.  It  is  evident, 
therefore,  that  it  has  some  affinity  with  the  cotyledons, 
and  also  with  the  albumen.  Of  all  the  internal  parts  of 
tue  seed,  the  vitellus  is  the  most  uncommon. 

In  the  seeds  of  what  are  commonly  called  the  more 
imperfect  plants,  such  as  the  Fuci,  the  Mosses,  and  the 
Ferns,  the  vitellus  presents  itself  in  its  most  simple  form 
and  fabric.  In  these  plants,  the  whole  kernel  is  a  pure 
vitellus,  which  is  formed  of  mere  herbaceous  or  almond- 
flesh,  and  exactly  adapted  to  the  cavity  of  its  shell. 
Even  here,  although  the  diagnosis  of  it  is  difficult,  it 
cannot,  in  the  opinion  of  Gaertner,  be  referred  to  the  al- 
bumen, because  it  does  not  contain  within  itself  a  dis- 
tinct embryo,  but  is  perfectly  solid.  Moreover,  near 
the  umbilicus  of  the  seed,  the  vitellus  has  growing  to 
it,  a  "  germinating  cicatricle",  which  is  not  separable 


206  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

from  the  remaining  substance  of  the  kernel,  nor  even 
distinguishable  from  it,  except  by  its  paler  colour,  and 
more  medullary  consistence  ;  as  we  observe  in  the  seeds 
of  Lycopodium.  Nor  can  the  substance  in  question  be 
considered  as  a  solid  cotyledon,  because  in  the  germi- 
nating seeds  of  the  Mosses,  we  plainly  observe  cotyledo- 
nous  leaflets,  arisingbelow  it  from  the  seed;  and  it  is  seen 
adhering  to  these  new  and  true  cotyledons,  a  long  time 
after  their  appearance,  and  the  seminal  plant  consuming 
and  destroying  it.  The  vitellus,  from  all  these  circum- 
stances, appears  to  be  of  an  intermediate  nature,  between 
the  albuminous  and  cotyledonous  matter. 

In  other  vegetables,  as  in  Ruppia  and  Zamia,  the 
fabric  of  the  vitellus  is  more  evident.  In  the  first  of 
these  plants,  it  is  very  like  to  a  fleshy  albumen,  and  in 
Zamia,  it  is  still  more  like  albuminous  matter.  In  Zos- 
tera,  Ceratophyllum,  and  others,  the  vitellus  approaches 
nearer  to  the  form  of  a  true  cotyledon,  being  formed  of 
a  white  almond-flesh,  and  divided  into  two  lobes.  In 
Ceratophyllum  and  Nelumbo,  indeed,  there  is  but  little 
perceptible  difference  between  the  vitellus  and  the  coty- 
ledons. Upon  the  whole,  however,  the  vitellus,  in  the 
opinion   of  Gsertner,    constitutes    a    distinct  kind   of 

viscus*. 

« 

3.  As  the  texture  of  the  albumen  is  much  more 
simple  than  that  of  the  vitellus,  so  the  fabric  of  this  last- 

*  In  describing  the  different  paits  of  the  seed,  such  as  the  albumen,  the  vi- 
tellus, &c,  I  frequently  employ,  with  but  little  alteration,  the  words  of  Gartner, 
in  his  extensive  history  of  these  parts.  Candour  requires  me  to  make  this  acknow- 
ledgment ;  and  whilst  I  make  it,  I  must  not  omit  to  refer  the  reader,  who  is 
anxious  for  more  minute  information  concerning  the  history  of  the  seed,  to  the 
learned  and  ingenious  work  of  the  German  botanist. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  207 

mentioned  part  is  less  perfect  than  that  of  the  cotyledons, 
which  now  claim  our  attention. 

The  cotyledons*  are  organized  parts  of  the  kernel, 
simple  or  divided,  which  together  with  the  radicle  and 
plumule  form  the  body  of  the  embryo,  which  is  next  to 
be  treated  of,  and  by  the  germination  of  the  seed,  are 
commonly  converted  into  the  first  leaflets  of  the  new 
plant,  which,  in  general,  are  different  from  the  succeed- 
ing leaves.  This  is  the  definition  of  Gsertner.  Lin- 
nasusdefines  them  to  be  the  lateral  body  of  the  seed,  bibu- 
lous or  imbibing  moisture,  and  caducous,  or  falling  off 
quickly:  "corpus  lateraleseminis,bibulum,caducumj-". 
Professor  Giseke  defines  it  "  folium  primum  germi- 
"  nantis  seminis"J  :  the  first  leaf  of  the  germinating 
seed.  But  this  is  rather  a  definition  of  the  seed-leaf. 
In  English,  the  part  of  which  I  am  speaking,  is  com- 
monly called  the  Seed-Lobe,  "  when  we  speak  of  it  as 
**  a  portion  of  the  seed,  in  a  quiescent  state — and  the 
"  seed-leaf,  when  the  seed  is  in  a  growing  state  Kf\ 

From  different  writers,  the  cotyledons  have  receiv- 
ed different  names.  Jungius,  in  the  seventeenth  cen- 
tury, denominated  them  Vahtf  seminis,  or  Valves  of 
the  seed.  Gleichen  called  them  Lobiseminales,  or  Seed- 
lobes  :  whilst  by  others,  they  have  been  called  Foliola 
seminalia,  or  Seminal-leaflets.  Linnaeus  adopted  the 
name  of  cotyledon,  which  is  used  by  Gasrtner,  and 
most  of  the  other  modern  writers  on  botany  ;  and  which, 
indeed,  seems  preferable  to  any  of  the  other  appellations. 
In  English,  we  shall  avoid  all  ambiguity  by  employing 

•  From  y.orvXn,  a  cavity. 

t  Philosophia  Botanica,  &c.  p.  54.  (j.  86.  \  Termini  BotanicL 

1^  Professor  Martyn. 


208  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

the  Latin  word,  cotyledon,   only  using,  in  the  plural, 
cotyledons. 

The  cotyledons  seem  to  derive  their  original  from 
the  embryo,  of  which  they  always  constitute  an  integral 
part.  In  particular,  the  simple  or  undivided  cotyledons 
are  supposed  to  be  formed  by  the  mere  extension  of  the 
corcle*,  or  first  medullary  point  of  the  seed,  and  are 
nothing  else  than  the  scape  of  the  embryo  more  or  less 
distinct  from  its  radicle  ;  as  in  the  Palms,  the  Grasses, 
and  the  Liliaceous  plants.  On  the  other  hand,  however, 
the  double  or  conjugate  cotyledons  are  formed  by  the 
fissures,  which  divide  the  part  of  the  corcle,  opposite  to 
the  radicle,  into  two  lobules,  which  are  generally 
equal. 

a.  In  regard  to  its  fabric,  the  cotyledon  is  gene- 
rally composed  of  three  distinct  parts,  viz.  epidermis, 
or  cuticle,  parenchyma,  and  tracheae,  or  vessels.  1.  The 
cuticle  invests  the  whole  surface  of  the  cotyledons,  and, 
in  the  opinion  of  Gsertner,  serves  them  partly  as  a  filtre, 
through  which  the  liquor  of  the  amnion  passes,  and 
partly  hinders  them  from  coalescing  with  the  neighbour- 
ing bodies.  2.  The  parenchyma  proceeds  from  the  in- 
ternal bark  of  the  embryo,  and  is  formed  of  cellular  tex- 
ture, in  the  interstices  of  which  are  deposited  a  thick 
oil,  and  other  inspissated  liquors.  This  parenchyma 
alone  forms  nearly  the  whole  mass  of  the  cotyledons, 
and  is  commonly  of  an  herbaceous,  almond,  or  some- 
what coriaceous  consistence,  and  principally  serves  the 
purpose  of  depurating  and  containing  the  nutritious 
juices.      3.    The   tracheae,    or   vessels,    are  dispersed 

•  See  what  is  afterward*  said  ou  the  Embryo. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  209 

through  the  whole  cellular  texture  of  the  cotyledons, 
and  connect  them  intimately  with  the  contained 
embryo*.  They  seem  to  arise  from  the  fleshy  sub- 
stance of  the  embryo,  immediately  below  the  origin  of 
the  plumule,  and  terminate  with  their  fine  extremities 
in  the  parenchyma,  or  the  surface  of  the  cotyledons. 
It  is  supposedf,  that  they  are  of  use  to  the  seminal  plant 
by  performing  the  two-fold  office  of  exhaling  and  absorb- 
ing vessels.  Whatever  may  be  their  precise  use,  it  is 
probable,  that  they  perform  for  the  seed,  an  office  simi- 
lar to  that  which  is  performed  by  the  apparently- same 
system  of  vessels,  which  are  so  conspicuous  in  the  leaves 
and  other  parts  of  vegetables^.  The  tracheae  are,  at 
all  times,  conspicuous  in  the  thinner  cotyledons  ;  and 
in  the  thicker  ones,  they  are  rendered  obvious  to  the 
senses  by  germination,  and  different  coloured  fluids, 
which  they  greedily  absorb.  We  cannot  doubt,  that 
this  absorption  depends  upon  a  living  principle  (irritabi- 
lity), inherent  in  the  vessels  of  which  I  am  speaking  : 
for  the  absorption,  or  propulsion  of  fluids,  is  observed 
to  be  considerably  increased  by  the  application  of  various 
stimulating  agents,  such  as  camphor,  nitre,  &c. 

b.  The  number  of  the  cotyledons  is  different  in 
different  seeds  ;  upon  the  whole,  however,  the  number 
of  these  parts  is  more  constant  than  that  of  any  other 
part  of  the  fructification.  Hence,  as  we  shall  afterwards 
see,  some  eminent  botanists  have  founded  their  methods 
of  vegetables  principally  upon  the  number  of  the  coty- 
ledons. 

*  See  Plate  v.  Fig.  F.  f  By  Gartner,  and  others. 

\  See  page  49,  &c,  and,  also,  Part  II. 

E  e 


210  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

A  seed,  in  the  language  of  the  botanists,  is,  1. 
Acotyledonons.  2.  Monocotyledonous-  3.  Dicotyledonous- 
ox,  4.  Polycotylcdonous. 

1.  The  seeds  which  are  destitute  of  cotyledons  are 
named  Acotyledonous  seeds,  and  the  plants  which  arise 
from  such  seeds,  Acotyledonous  plants.  The  acotyle- 
donous seed  has  no  conspicuous  or  distinct  embryo,  but 
contains  within  itself  only  a  punctum  saliens,  or  mere 
germinating  cicatricle  ;  or  a  certain  simple  primordium 
of  a  radicle,  implanted  in  the  kernel,  and  which  is  se- 
veral times  larger  than  itself;  as  in  Ruppia,  Zostera, 
Zamia,  the  Fuci,  the  Mosses,  the  Ferns,  and  the  Fun- 
gous plants. 

A  plant  is  named  acotyledonous,  which,  without 
any  preceding  vestige  of  a  true  leaflet,  arises  from  the 
earth,  a  frond  of  different  species,  but  perfectly  similar 
to  the  parent  plant.  Plants  of  this  kind  are  seldom 
propagated  from  seed,  but  more  commonly  spring  from 
simple  or  fruit-like  ( 'carpomorpbi* J ,  buds,  as  is  the 
case  with  respect  to  the  Fungous  plants,  the  Lichens, 
the  Confervae,  and  some  of  the  Algaef . 

Linn^usJ,  Adanson,  Jussieu,  Gaertner,  and  other 
able  botanists,  have  no  hesitation  in  asserting,  that  there 
are  seeds,  which  are  acotyledonous,  or  destitute  of  co- 
tyledons. On  the  other  hand,  however,  Dr.  Hedwig, 
of  Leipsic,  of  whom  it  has  been  said,  that  he  was 
"  born  to  abolish  Cryptogamy",  asserts,  that  there  are 
no    seeds   whatever  destitute  of  cotyledons  ;  that   the 

*  Gaertner.  f  See  Part  III.  Class  xxiv.     Cryptogamia. 

|  "  Musci  et  adfines  (says  Linnaeus)  solis  Cotyledonibus  destituuntur".     Phi- 
lesophia  Botanica,  &c.  p.  89.  \.  136. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  fHl 

powder  of  the  Mosses  (a  tribe  of  plants  which  the  bo- 
tanists, whom  I  have  mentioned,  arrange  under  the 
head  of  Acoiyledones)  is  the  genuine  seed  of  these  plants, 
which  are  furnished  with  their  proper  cotyledonous 
matter,  as  in  other  plants.  "  Pulvisculus  (these  are  his 
words)  "  igitur  Muscorum  intra  capitula  contentus, 
"  verum  eorum  est  semen,  quod,  veluti  aliorum  vege- 
"  tabilium  semina,  sua  tunica,  cotyledone  uno  et  ultra, 
"  et  plantulae  rudimento  instruitur*".  Notwithstand- 
ing, however,  the  truly  ingenious  and  meritorious  la- 
bours of  this  author,  it  still,  I  think,  remains  to  be 
ascertained,  whether  the  Mosses  are  really  furnished 
with  cotyledons,  or  not.  Meanwhile,  I  follow  the  au- 
thors above  mentioned,  in  retaining  a  head  or  class  of 
acotyledonous  seeds. 

2.  The  Monocotyledonous  seeds  are  such  as  have  only 
one  cotyledon,  or  lobe,  in  the  seed-  A  seed  of  this  kind 
contains  with  it  a  very  entire  embryo,  without  any  per- 
ceptible chink,  and  is  either  entirely  free,  or  at  least 
loose  from  the  rest  of  the  kernel,  at  the  extremity  oppo- 
site to  its  radicle. 

Monocotyledonous  are  much  more  numerous 
than  acotyledonous,  plants.  To  the  former  head,  are 
referred  the  great  natural  families  of  the  Grasses,  the 
Palms,  the  Scitaminessf ,  the  Liliaceous,  and  many 
other,  plants.  Gaertner  observes,  that  these  seeds  are  of 
two  kinds,  viz.  1.  the  true  monocotyledonous,  having 
the  embryo  formed  from  its  first  production,  of  one  in- 

*  D.  Joannis    Hedwigii,  &c.     Fundamentum  Historiae  Naturalis  Muscorum 
Frondosorum,  &c.     Part  II.  p.  55.  Lipsiae  :   1783. 

t  See  Part  III.     Class  I.     Monamdeia. 


212  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

dividual  body,  and  so  composed  of  a  medullary  and  cor- 
tical substance,  that  in  every  transverse  section  of  the 
embryo,  the  double  substance  appears  both  distinct,  and 
very  entire  :  and,  2.  false  monocotyledonous  (psendo- 
monocotyledoneaj,  containing,  as  well  as  the  former,  a 
solid  and  undivided  embryo,  but  at  its  first  production, 
parted  into  distinct  lobules,  and  afterwards,  from  the 
lobules  being  united  at  maturity,  transformed  into  a 
solid  and  individual  body  ;  as  in  Tropceolum,  Paullinia, 
and  others. 

G^ertner  also  divides  the  monocotyledonous 
plants  into  true  and  spurious'  The  true  monocotyle- 
donous plants  observe  one  and  the  same  mode  of  germi- 
nating and  of  growing,  and,  consequently,  have  the 
same  habit  of  external  form.  To  this  head  we  refer  the 
Grasses,  the  Cyperoidege,  the  Liliaceous  plants,  the 
great  family  of  Orchides,  the  Scitamineae,  the  Palms, 
and  others.  The  spurious  monocotyledonous  plants  only 
agree  in  the  mode  of  germinating  with  one  another,  and 
with  the  former ;  whilst,  in  regard  to  their  other  qua- 
lities, they  differ  in  almost  every  point ;  as  in  Nelum- 
bium,  Trapa,  Ceratophyllum,  Cuscuta,  Orobanche, 
and  others.  Hence,  a  plant  is  generally  named  mono- 
cotyledonous, which  springs  from  the  shell  (testa)  of 
the  seed,  with  a  single  true  leaflet,  or  with  a  single 
filiform  shoot,  or  turio. 

The  monocotyledonous  plant  which  arises  from 
the  shell  with  a  leaflet,  is  denominated  phyllophorus,  or 
leaf-bearing  (phyllopbora)  ;  and  that  which  arises  with 
a  filiform  shoot  is  called  turioniferous,  or  shoot-bearing 
(turionifera).    These  last  are  either  completely  destitute 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  213 

of  leaves  (apbylla) ;  as  in  Cuscuta  and  Melocatus  ;  or 
they  are  bulbiferous  {bulbifene),  when  the  embryo  of  the 
seed  is  first  elongated  into  a  fleshy  staff,  then  the  outer 
extremity  of  it  is  enlarged  into  a  bulbous  globule  ;  and 
from  this  globule  arises  the  first  leaflet. 

3.  The  seeds  which  are  furnished  with  two  cotyle- 
dons, are  denominated  Dicotyledonous,  and  are  by  far 
the  most  frequent.  They  cherish  within  them  an  em- 
bryo, separating  spontaneously  into  two  lobes,  or,  at 
least,  divided  by  a  conspicuous  chink,  in  the  extremity- 
opposite  to  the  radicle. 

The  dicotyledonous  seeds  are,  in  general,  very  rea- 
dily distinguished  from  the  others,  besause,  in  by  far  the 
greaterpartof  them,  the  cotyledons  are  manifestly  distinct 
from  each  other,  as  in  the  Garden-Bean,  and  many 
others*.  In  some  of  the  seeds  of  this  class,  however, 
the  diagnosis,  as  it  is  called,  is  attended  with  some  dif- 
ficulty. This  difficulty  occurs,  when  the  cotyledons, 
now  arrived  at  maturity,  have  coalesced  into  one  undi- 
vided body ;  or,  again,  when  in  the  more  minute  em- 
bryos, the  chink  of  the  division  is  so  very  small,  that  it 
cannot  be  properly  distinguished,  even  when  the  eye  is 
assisted  by  a  magnifying  glass.  In  the  former  case,  it  is 
advised  to  cut  the  seed  before  its  complete  maturity, 
or  the  mature  kernel  is  to  be  determined  and  referred  to 
its  proper  class,  agreeably  to  the  signs,  already  men- 
tioned, when  speaking  of  the  false  monocotyledonous 
seedf.     In  the  latter  case,  it  is  useful,  in  many  in- 

*   See  Plate  v.  Fig.  F. 

f  All  the  false  monocotyledonous  seeds,  according   to  Gaertner,  properly  be- 
long to  other  classes,  and  most  of  them  are  dicotyledonous. 


214  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

stances,  to  throw  the  doubtful  embryo  into  a  coloured 
liquor,  very  readily  diffusible,  such  as  that  of  the  Phy- 
tolacca, or  Poke,  that  this  liquor  may  be  received 
within  the  chink,  and  thus  render  it  more  conspicuous 
to  the  eye.  If,  notwithstanding  these  precautions,  we 
cannot  satisfy  our  minds,  then  the  seed  is  to  be  referred 
to  the  head  of  monocotyledonous  seeds,  even  though 
we  are  certain,  that  it  has  originated  from  a  genuine  di- 
cotyledonous plant. 

The  greater  number  of  dicotyledonous  plants  arise 
from  the  earth  with  two  seminal  leaflets  [folia  seminalia*), 
but  sometimes  they  leave  their  cotyledonous  lobes  hidden 
beneath  the  surface  of  the  earth,  and  rise,  to  meet  the 
light  and  air,  with  their  plumule  only.  This  difference 
has  given  occasion  to  distinguish  the  dicotyledonous 
seeds  into,   1.  epigean,  and,  2.  hypogean. 

The  epigean  (epigcece)  cotyledons  are  always  the 
forerunners  of  the  appearance  of  the  new  plant,  and 
either  resemble  thick  herbaceous  lobes,  as  in  the  Kid- 
ney-Bean, and  other  Leguminous  plants  ;  or  they  re- 
semble true  leaves,  in  general,  however  different  from 
those  which  are  to  follow,  as  in  the  Compound-flowers, 
and  others ;  and  they  spontaneously  fall  off,  after  the 
plumule  has  unfolded  itself. 

The  hypogean  [hypogozcd) cotyledons  are  only  to  be 
met  with,  in  some  of  the  exalbuminous  seeds  formerly 
mentioned!,  the  testa,  or  shell,  of  which  they  very 
exactly  fill,  and  never  throw  it  off.  They,  therefore, 
always  consist  of  thick  and  fleshy  lobes,  and  these  are 

*  See  Plate  v.  Fig.  H.  and  Fig.  O.  f  See  page   204. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  215 

either  united,  as  in  the  Horse-Chesnut  (^Esculus  Hip- 
pocastanum),  &c.  or  they  are  distinct,  as  in  the  Wal- 
nuts and  Hickeries  (Juglans),  and  others.  These,  for 
the  most  part,  even  before  germination,  cherish  in  their 
bosom,  a  manifest  plumule,  which,  of  itself,  is  capable 
of  evolution. 

4.  The  Polycotyledonous  seeds  are  those  which 
have  more  than  two  cotyledons  ;  or,  in  other  words, 
those  in  which  the  embryo  is  divided  into  more  than 
two  lobes.  In  general,  they  are  easily  distinguished 
from  the  other  seeds,  already  mentioned.  The  cotyle- 
dons are  found  to  be  more  than  two  in  various  plants. 
Thus,  there  are  three  cotyledons  in  the  Hemlock  Spruce- 
Fir  (Pinus canadensis);  fourinRhizophoragymnorrhiza, 
and  in  Avicennia  ;  five  in  the  Common  Pine  (Pinus  syl- 
vestris) ;  six  in  the  Garden-cress  (Lepidium  sativum), 
and  ten,  twelve,  or  more,  in  the  different  species  of 
Pine.  In  all  these  plants,  the  lobes  are  observed  to  be 
perfectly  equal,  except  in  Canarium  and  Lepidium. 
They  are,  likewise,  distinct  in  all,  except  Hernandia, 
the  cotyledonous  kernel  of  which  is  solid,  and  only 
many-parted,  internally,  by  indistinct  streaks.  But 
polycotyledonous  plants  do  not  arise  exclusively  from 
these  seeds  ;  they  are  actually  known  to  arise  from  aco- 
tyledonous  seeds,  as  from  Mnium  hygrometricum, 
from  Bryum  trichodes  and  B.  argenteum,  and  from  va- 
rious Fuci.  Moreover,  true  dicotyledonous  seeds 
sometimes  counterfeit  the  polycotyledonous,  namely 
when  the  nucleus,  or  kernel,  owing  to  the  abundance 
of  nutriment,  is  divided  into  various  irregular  lobes,  as 
in  Mangifera  domestica  ;  or  into  minute  bractes,  which 
do  not  cohere  with  each  other,  as  in  the  Shaddock  (Ci- 


216  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

trus  decumana) :  but  this  structure  is,  unquestionably, 
monstrous,  and  cannot  deceive  the  botanist  who  is  well 
versed  in  inquiries  of  this  nature. 

David  MEESEwas  of  opinion,  that  there  are  no  seeds 
furnished  with  more  than  two  cotyledons* ;  and  Mr.  Adan- 
son  asserts,  that  the  polycotyledonous  seeds  only  differ 
from  those  which  are  dicotyledonous,  in  this,  that  the 
lobes  of  the  former  are  again  deeply  divided,  and  that 
their  lobes  are,  in  reality,  only  two  in  number.  The 
opinion  of  the  French  botanist  has  been  implicitly 
adopted  by  maiij  succeeding  botanists,  among  whom  I 
may  mention  the  learned  Mr.  de  Jussieuf .  It  is  certain, 
however,  that  there  are  seeds  entitled  to  the  appellation 
of  polycotyledonous  seeds.  This  is  evident  from  the 
unequal  number  of  the  lobes,  as  a  ternary  and  quinary 
one,  in  some  species  of  Pine-  The  polycotyledonous 
plants,  however,  are,  on  all  hands,  acknowledged  to 
be  but  few  in  number. 


******** 
***** 


As  the  number  of  cotyledons  is  upon  "the  whole 
pretty  constant,  and  rarely  varies  in  the  same  family, 
so  many  botanists  have  founded  their  methods  of  plants 
chiefly  upon  the  number  of  these  parts.     Thus,  Ray, 

*  Plantarum  Rudimenta,  &c.  &c.  1763.  4°. 
t  Genera  Plantarum,  kc.  p.  415.     Mr.  Curtis  (A  Companion,  &c.  p.  20.  J  po- 
sitively asserts,  that  the  seed  of  the  Pine  has  only  one  cotyledon,  and  that  what 
have  been  taken  for  the  cotyledons   "  was,  in  fact,  the  plumule  expanded  into  a 
"  considerable  number  cf  narrow  leaves". 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  217 

Boerhaave,  Heister,  Meese,  Adanson*,  and  others,  have 
assumed  the  number  of  the  cotyledons  as  the  basis  of  their 
systems,  and  have  divided  the  vegetables  of  which  they 
treat  generally  into  Acotyledonous,  Monocotyledonous, 
Dicotyledonous,  and  Polycotyledonous.  This  division 
is,  likewise,  the  foundation  of  the  celebrated,  and,  in 
many  respects,  natural  method  of  Mr-  de  Jussieu,  to 
which  1  shall  have  frequent  occasion  to  refer,  in  the  last 
part  of  this  work.  This  distribution,  however,  does 
not  afford  classes  of  vegetables  sufficiently  natural  for 
the  purpose  of  the  botanist :  and  is,  moreover,  liable 
to  considerable  difficulties.  We  cannot  learn,  with  ab- 
solute certainty,  the  true  number  of  the  cotyledons, 
unless  when  we  have  an  opportunity  of  inspecting  the 
seed  in  a  germinating  state  ;  nor  will  the  fabric  of  the 
embryo,  in  every  case,  enable  us  to  form  a  safe  judg- 
ment of  the  number  of  the  future  cotyledons  ;  for  it  is 
found,  as  has  been  already  observed,  that  sometimes, 
as  in  the  Mosses,  a  polycotyledonous  plant  proceeds  from 
an  acotyledonous  seed  ;  that  from  a  monocotyledonous 
plant  occasionally  proceed  plants  which  are  closely  allied 
to  the  dicotyledonous  plants,  as  in  Dodder  (Cuscuta), 
and  in  Melocactus.  Lastly,  it  is  certain,  that  from  a  seed 
which  is  manifestly  dicotyledonous,  there  may  spring 
plants  which  are  attended  by  only  one  cotyledonous 
leaflet ;  as  in  the  genera  Nelumbium  and  Trapa.  Upon 
the  whole,  while  it  will  readily  be  admitted,  that  al- 
though the  number,  the  fabric,  and  physiology  of  the 
cotyledons  are  points  which  ought  never  to  be  neglected 
by  the  genuine  botanist,   it  is  highly  improbable,  that  a 

*  Tins  trnly  learned  botanist  has  founrled  two  systems  on  the  cotyledons,  the 
one  on  die  number,  and  the  other  on  the  form,  of  these  parts. 

F    f 


218  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

methodical  distribution  of  plants  from  the  number  or 
form  of  these  parts  of  the  seed,  will  ever  be  generally 
received. 

c.  In  general,  when  there  are  two  or  more  coty- 
ledons in  a  seed,  they  are  equal,  or  of  the  same  size, 
&c.  :  in  some  instances,  however,  we  do  observe  a  dif- 
ference both  in  regard  to  the  size  and  thickness  of  the 
cotyledons.  But  germination  finally  abolishes  the  dif- 
ference ;  and  it  is  observed,  that  the  cotyledons  of  the 
same  seed,  when  evolved,  are  both  very  generally  equal 
and  very  similar,  to  each  other. 

d.  The  size  of  the  cotyledons  is  various  in  differ- 
ent vegetables.  Most  of  the  exalbuminous  seeds  have 
very  large  cotyledons  ;  as  in  the  Compound-flowers,  the 
Verticillate  plants,  &c.  On  the  contrary,  in  the  Umbel- 
liferae,  the  Stellate,  and  some  other  natural  families,  the 
cotyledons  are  smaller.  That  is,  in  the  first  case,  they 
either  fill  the  whole  of  the  shell  of  the  seed  ;  so  that, 
when  it  is  opened,  we  observe  nothing  but  the  cotyle- 
dons and  the  radicle ;  or,  in  the  second  case,  they  are 
nearly  of  the  length  and  breadth  of  the  seed-shell,  but 
owing  to  their  albuminous  matter,  do  not  completely  fill 
it ;  or,  lastly,  they  are  sometimes  hardly  discernible, 
even  by  means  of  a  glass  :  as  in  Heath  (Erica \  Colum- 
bine (Aquilegia),  Ranunculus,  and  others.  Gartner 
enumerates  four  heads  of  sizes  of  the  cotyledons,  viz. 
very  large  (maxima J ,  middle  sized  (mediocresj*  small 
fparvtej,  and  minute  (minutes). 

e.  The  absolute  situation  of  the  cotyledons  is  sup- 
posed to  be  always  in  the  highest  part  of  the  radicle, 
although  this  be  inverted,  or  those  be  turned  to  the  side 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  219 

of  the  radicle,  or  rolled  about  it.  But  the  relative  situ- 
ation respects  the  situation  which  the  cotyledons  hold 
among  themselves,  or  in  respect  to  the  external  re- 
gions of  the  seed. 

Cotyledons,  with  respect  to  each  other,  are,  1« 
cont'igiitf,  contiguous ;  their  internal  surfaces  touching 
mutually  in  every  point ;  as  in  by  far  the  greater  num- 
ber of  known  vegetables.  2-  opposite,  opposite  ;  their 
internal  surfaces  mutually  respecting  each  other;  but,  by 
reason  of  the  inflected  margins,  either  not  able  to  touch 
each  other  at  all,  or  not  in  all  points ;  as  in  Meadowr 
Crane's-bill  (Geranium  pratense),  Coldenia,  and  others. 
3.  collaterales,  collateral ;  when  one  cotyledon  is  placed 
at  the  side  of  the  other,  in  the  same  vertical  plane,  so 
that  it  is  only  at  their  internal  margins  that  they  can  mu- 
tually respect  or  touch  each  other ;  as  in  the  Miseletoe 
(Viscum  album),  Menispermum  Coculus,  and,  in  some 
measure,  in  Cachrys.  4.  dhergentes,  diverging ; 
joined  at  the  base,  but  taking  a  contrary  direction  at  the 
apex  ;  as  in  Nutmeg  (Myristica),  and  Menispermum 
fenestratum.  5.  <vertici!/ata,',  verticillate  ;  placed  in  a 
circle,  about  a  common  point,  so  that  they  mutually 
touch  each  other  ;   as  in  Pine,  and  Rhizophora- 

Cotyledons,  with  respect  to  the  external  regions 
of  the  seed,  are,  1.  incumbcntes,  incumbent ;  when  one 
of  the  cotyledons  respects  the  back,  and  the  other  the 
belly  of  the  seed,  so  that  the  plane  of  mutual  contact  is 
parallel  with  the  axis  of  the  fruitjjlas  in  Henbane  (Hy- 
oscyamus),  Campion  (Cucubalus),  &c.  2.  accumbentes, 
accumbent ;  when  one  respects  the  right  and  the  other 
the  left  side  of  the  seed,  and  the  margins  are  turned  to 


220  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

the  back  and  belly  of  it,  so  that  the  plane  of  contact  is 
contrary  to  the  axis  ;  as  in  the  Leguminous  plants,  and 
others.  3.  transfer  sales,  transverse ;  which  have  an 
oblique,  or  irregular  situation  in  the  seed,  as  in  Myr- 
sine,  and  Lathraea,   &c. 

/.Almost  all  the  known  cotyledons  have  a  continu- 
ity of  substance,  and  a  perfect  equality  of  surface  :  yet 
some  variations  from  these  rules  do  occur.  Thus, 
some  cotyledons  are,  1.  dentate,  toothed,  or  serrated 
in  the  margin  ;  as  in  the  Lime-tree  (Tilia).  2.  partita, 
parted  ;  their  foliaceous  plates  more  or  less  deeply  di- 
vided into  equal  parts.  3.  rimosce,  or  anfractuose, 
chinky  ;  having  their  thick  lobes  divided  by  chinks,  and 
deep  furrows  into  various  irregular  lobes,  cohering  with 
each  other,  and  not  separated  by  an  intervening  mem- 
brane ;  as  in  Beech  (Fagus),  &c.  4.  ruminate,  rumi- 
nate ;  like  the  preceding,  except  that  the  chinks  are 
principally  placed  in  the  external  surface  ;  and  separated 
by  intervening  membranous  plates  ;  as  in  the  Chesnut 
(Fagus  Castanea).  5.  lobate,  lobed ;  when  each  pri- 
mary lobe  is  again  divided  into  other  smaller  lobes,  on 
the  exterior  surface  only ;  as  in  the  Walnut.  6. 
fenestrate,  windowed  ;  pierced  with  many  round  holes  ; 
as  in  a  species  of  Menispermum,  called,  on  account  of 
this  very  singular  structure,  M.  fenestratum. 

g.  Very  often  the  figure  of  the  cotyledons  is  not  dif- 
ferent from  that  of  the  whole  embryo,  especially  in  the 
monocotyledonous  and  various  other  seeds  :  but,  in 
most  seeds,  it  is  worthy  of  a  separate  consideration, 
and  either  according  to  the  straightness  or  curvature  of 
the  plane  of  contact,  or  according  to  the   circumcesure 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  221 

of  the  cotyledons.  Thus,  the  cotyledons  are,  1.  recta, 
straight ;  when  the  internal  surfaces,  or  plane  of  mutual 
contact,  as  well  with  respect  to  their  length  or  breadth, 
hardly  deviate  from  the  right  line.  2.  arcuata,  bowed  ; 
generally  narrow, and  always  longer  than  they  are  broad: 
the  axis,  also,  is  curved  in  all,  but  the  breadth  of  the 
surfaces  is  always  straight  and  flat.  3.  reniformes, 
reniform  ;  the  nearest  to  straight,  as  in  the  Leguminous 
plants.  4.  falcata,  sickle-shaped,  5.  uncinata  &?  se- 
micircular es,  hooked  and  semicircular.  6.  cochleata, 
cochleate  ;  which  make  one  or  two  spiral  turns  ;  as  in 
Cistus.  7.  wmiculares,  vermicular  ;  bowed  in  an  ir- 
regular manner  ,  as  in  Scprpiurus  vermiculata-  8.Jiex- 
iwsa,  flexuose.  9.  carinata,  keeled  ;  the  axis  project- 
ing into  an  angle,  but  the  flattish  sides  bent  either  for- 
wards or  backwards ;  as  in  Privet  (Ligustrum).  10. 
conni'oentes  or  subconduplicata ;  converging,  or  some- 
what conduplicate  :  these,  from  their  situation,  are  op- 
posite, and  their  sides  are  inflected  in  such  a  manner 
that  the  half  of  one  plate  is  received  within  the  duplica- 
tive of  the  other  ;  as  in  Meadow  Cranesbill  and  Colde- 
nia.  11.  repanda.  repand  ;  the  plates  being  curved  in 
contrary  directions,  only  near  the  margin,  but,  in  the 
middle,  are  sufficiently  flat,  and  are  marked  with  a  round 
angle  ;  as  in  Tilia,  Buckwheat  (Polygonum  Fagopy- 
rum),  &c.  12.  plicata,  plaited  ;  plaited  like  a  ruffle 
into  contiguous  vertical  or  transverse  wrinkles,  as  in 
Sebestena,  &c.  13.  lacunosa,  pitted  ;  having  their  in- 
ternal surfaces  marked  with  rude  and  thick  folds  ;  as  in 
Beech,  ike.  14.  voluta,  volute;  differing  from  all  the 
preceding,  because  their  foliaceous  and  very  broad  plates 
are  rolled  in  various  ways  about  a  globe,  or  cylinder, 


222  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY 

or  each  other,  and  curved  in  all  directions  *.  15.  con- 
volutee,  convolute  ;  strictly  so  called.  16-  cylindrica, 
cylindrical ;  simply  rolled  into  a  hollow  cylinder  ;  as  in 
Pisonia.  17.  spirales,  spiral;  the  foliaceous  plates 
rolled,  in  a  spiral  direction,  about  the  radicle  or  plu- 
mule ;  as  in  the  Pomegranate  (Punica),  Myrobalanus, 
&c  18.  duplicato-convoluta,  doubly-convolute  ;  having 
both  margins  reflected  spirally  into  the  middle  of  the  in- 
ternal surface ;  as  in  the  Nelumbo-  19.  vaginantes, 
sheathing ;  the  outer  plate  cylindrically  convolute,  and 
embracing  the  internal,  doubly  convolute  ;  as  in  Au- 
bletia,  Rivinia,  &c.  20.  contortuplicata,  writhed,  or  con- 
tortuplicate  ;  plaited  and  convolute  in  an  almost  inextri- 
cable manner ;  as  in  Mallow  (Malva),  Cotton  (Gossy- 
pium),  Convolvulus,   and  others  j\ 

"  The  proper  figure  of  the  cotyledons,  which  is 
"  defined  by  the  limits  of  the  circumference  of  the  mar- 
"  gins  alone,  and  is  equally  common  to  the  straight  and 
"  curved  cotyledons,  has  exactly  the  same  modifica- 
"  tions"  that  the  true  leaves  (formerly  considered  J) 
have,  being,  like  them,  linear,  lanceolate,  oblong, 
ovate,  cordate,  &c,  except,  that  the  margins  of  the  co- 

*  To  this  head  are  referred  cotyledons  that  are,  1.  concavx,  concave,  or  spoon- 
shaped  (coch/eariformesj  ;  as  in  Myristica  officinalis.  2.  conglobates,  conglobate  ; 
formed  into  a  sphere,  which  is  smooth  on  the  outside,  but  plaited  within  in  various 
ways  ;  as  in  Cabbage  (Brassica),  &c. 

\  It  is  not  er.nected,  that  students  in  botany,  much  less  those  who  merely 
pursue  plants  as  an  object  of  pleasure,  are  to  become  thoroughly  acquainted  with 
this  extensive  and  very  difficult  nomenclature  of  the  cotyledons.  In  a  work,  how- 
ever, such  as  the  present,  it  would  have  been  improper  to  have  omitted  this  ter- 
minology, which  we  owe  to  the  persevering  industry  and  nice  discrimination  of  the 
learned  Gsertner. 

*  See  pages  31,  &c.  &c. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  223 

tyledons  are  very  rarely  toothed  or  incised,  and  hardly 
ever  irregular.  As  true  leaves,  so  likewise  the  cotyle- 
dons have  a  different  form  in  the  different  species  of  one 
natural  genus,  or  family.  Thus,  in  the  Tartarian  Ma- 
ple (Acer  tataricum),  the  cotyledons  are  gibbously  flex- 
uose,  whilst  in  the  Red-Maple  (Acer  rubrum),  they  are 
spiral,  &c.  Thus,  again,  in  the  Mountain-Dock,  or 
Sorrel  (Rumex  digynus)  they  are  quite  straight,  but  in 
Bloody-Dock  (Rumex  sanguineus)  and  in  Blunt-leaved 
Dock  (Rumex  obtusifolius),  they  are  slightly  curved, 
&c  &c.  It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that  these  dif- 
ferences, which  are  so  very  frequent  in  the  true  leaves, 
very  rarely  occur  in  the  cotyledons.  Indeed,  it  is  very 
common  for  all  the  cotyledons  of  one  genus  or  family, 
and  even  of  two  natural  classes,  to  be  very  similar,  and 
absolutely  of  the  same  form  ;  as  in  the  Umbelliferous 
plants,  and  others-  This  circumstance  must  show  the 
necessity,  or  at  least  the  propriety,  of  carefully  studying 
the  history  of  the  cotyledons,  in  every  attempt  towards 
a  natural  arrangement  of  vegetables.  Indeed,  without  a 
minute  attention  to  the  cotyledons,  we  shall  never  pos- 
sess, what  it  is  a  matter  of  so  much  consequence  to  pos- 
sess, A  Philosophical  History  of  the  vegeta- 
ble Kingdom. 

h.  The  most  common  colour  of  the  cotyledons  is  a 
pure  milky  white.  Yellow-coloured  cotyledons  are  not 
uncommon,  especially  in  the  ripe  seeds  of  siliques  and 
legumes.  Some  cotyledons  are  of  a  dark  or  grass-green 
colour*.     In  the  seeds  of  the  two  genera  Sonchus  and 

*  When,  besides  this  colour,  cotyledons  have,  likewise,  a  foliaceous  figure, 
the  seeds  are  said  to  be  germinating  fgerniinantiaj,  as  in  Nelumbo. 


224  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

Scorzonera,  the  cotyledonous  matter  is  of  a  livid  or 
leaden  colour  ;  and  in  the  seeds  of  Bidens  and  Zinnia, 
it  is  of  a  purplish  colour.  But  these  colours  are  unu- 
sual, and  they  are  all,  by  the  great  process  of  germina- 
tion, converted  into  green ;  though  sometimes  into  a 
fine-blood  colour,  as  in  some  species  of  Amaranthus, 
&c. 

I.  In  regard  to  their  odour  and  tastes,  it  is  certain 
that,  in  general,  the  cotyledons  have  but  little  or  no 
odour  ;  or,  at  least,  not  a  sweet  or  aromatic  odour. 
For  although  the  fruits  of  Cinnamon  (Laurus  Cinnamo- 
mum),  and  Clove  (Eugenia  caryophyllata)  possess  a  very 
fragrant  smell,  yet  this  is  entirely  lost  in  the  complete- 
ly-matured cotyledons.  In  some  seeds,  the  taste  of  the 
cotyledonous  matter  is  bitter,  as  in  Quassia  excelsa  ;  in 
others,  it  is  acrid :  but  very  generally  it  is  insipid  and 
mealy,  or  sweetish,  as  in  the  recent  kernels  of  the 
Almond  (Amygdalus  communis),  the  Filbert  (Corylus 
Avellana),  and  different  species  of  Walnut  andHickery, 
such  as  Juglans  regia,  J.  nigra,  Shell-bark  Htekery  (Ju- 
glans  alba  ovata*;,  and  others. 

IV.  The  Embryo  is  the  most  noble  and  essential  part  of 
a  fertile  seed.  It  is  the  part  which  exclusively  forms 
the  nova  progenies,  or  new  plant,  and  to  which  all  the 
other  parts  are  added,  for  its  temporary  use  only-  To 
this  part  Linnaeus,  after  Andreas  Csesalpinus,  gave  the 
name  of  Corcuhim,  or  the  little  heart-  Dr.  Martyn  calls 
it  Corcle-     Some  writers  have  named  it  plumula  semi- 

*  Of  Marshall. 


ELEMENTS   OF   BOTANY.  225 

fia/is*,  or  the  seminal  plumule.  Adanson  and  Gaertner 
designate  it  by  the  name  of  embryo,  a  term  which  I  do 
not  hesitate  to  adopt  in  preference  to  either  of  the  others, 
which  I  have  mentionedf. 

According  to  Gaertner,  the  embryo  derives  its 
origin  from  the  medullary  point  (panctum  medullare%), 
produced  by  fecundation  ;  and,  this  point,  he  thinks, 
might  more  properly  be  named  the  corcle  of  the  seed, 
"  because  in  it  alone  resides  the  fountain  of  all  vegeta- 
"  ble  life,  and  from  it  alone  proceeds  the  whole  vascular 
"  system  of  the  embryo".  In  some  cases,  the  corcle  is 
so  little  augmented,  that,  even  in  the  matured  seed,  it  is 
either  altogether  imperceptible,  or  it  appears  only  like  a 
paler  point  or  dot,  which  Gaertner  names  the  cicatricle 
(cicatricula),  and  which  has  nothing  of  the  embryo 
but  the  principle  of  life  (or  the  capacity  of  being  roused 
to  the  possession  of  life),  and  the  faculty  of  germinat- 
ing. In  other  cases,  the  medullary  point  gradually 
passes  into  a  columnar  radicle,  which  projects  above 
the  kernel  at  its  free  apex,  and  at  its  base  grows  firmly 
to  the  same.  Lastly,  in  other  cases,  the  corcle,  on  all 
sides  loose,  grows  at  both  of  its  extremities,  from  one 
of  which  it  puts  forth  the  radicle,  and  from  the  other  the 
newly-organized  parts,  which  are  named  cotyledon  and 
plumule.  Hence,  there  arises  a  four-fold  difference  of 
the  embryo,  from  the  increase  of  the  corcle  within  the 
seed,  viz.  1.  impcrfectus,  imperfect ;  an  embryo,  which, 
to  use  the  words  of  Gaertner,   is    "  merely  potential", 

*  Professor  Ludwig  calls  it  Plantula  semina'.is. 

t  See  Plite  v.  Hg.  C.  3.  4.     Fig.  F.  1.  1.  2.  3.     Fig.  G   1.     Fig.  H.  1.  2.  Fig. 
L.  1.     Fig.N.     Fig.  O. 
i  See  Mg 

G    g 


226  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

as  being  formed  from  the  germinating  cicatricle  alone. 
2.  incompletes,  incomplete;  formed  of  a  simple,  fixed 
radicle  alone.  3.  perfectus,  perfect ;  constructed  of  a 
free  radicle  and  plumule.  4.  completus,  complete  ;  com- 
posed of  a  radicle,  cotyledon,  and  plumule. 

The  consistence  of  the  embryo  in  all  is  soft  and 
herbaceous,  fleshy,  except  in  Rhizophora,  the  radicle 
of  which  is  converted,  at  maturity,  into  an  almost  woody 
hardness.  The  internal  fabric  of  the  embryo  is  very 
simple,  being  formed  from  the  medulla  alone,  and  sur- 
rounded by  its  proper  bark,  in  the  more  simple  em- 
bryos. But  in  other  embryos,  vessels  are  observable. 
These  vessels  arise  from  the  lobules  of  the  plumule  or 
cotyledons  by  an  insensible  beginning,  and  gradually 
anastamosing  or  uniting  with  each  other,  they  run 
through  the  whole  substance  of  the  embryo,  and  finish 
in  its  outermost  radicle.  This  vascular  structure  is 
beautifully  conspicuous  in  the  embryo  of  the  Persim- 
mon (Diospyrosvirginiana),  when  it  is  viewed  through  a 
magnifying  glass*.  The  external  fabric  is  generally 
owing  to  three  distinct  parts,  which  are  peculiar  to  the 
embryo,  and  denominated  the  Plumule,  the  Scape, 
and  the  Radicle.  Of  these  parts  I  shall  speak,  sepa- 
rately, afterwards. 

a.  In  regard  to  the  figure  of  the  embryo,  it  is  to 
be  observed,  that  this  arises  principally  from  the  cotyle- 
dons, joined  to  the  radicle,  especially  in  the  solid  or 
true  monocotyledonous  embryos,  which  are  almost  en- 
tirely made  up  of  the  cotyledon  alone,  and  frequently 

*  See  Plate  v.  Fig.  O. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  227 

have  a  peculiar  form,   which  is  not  to  be  met  with  in 
others. 

a.  The  solid  or  true  monocotyledonous  embryo  is, 
1.  trochkaris,  pulley-like  ;  consisting  of  a  short  cylin- 
der narrowed  in  the  middle,  or  as  if  composed  of  two 
globules  ;  as  in  Commelina,  &c.  2.  pyramidalis,  py- 
ramidal ;  rising  from  a  broad  radical  base  into  an  acute 
point,  which  is  either  longer,  or  shorter,  orcylindraceo- 
acuminate.  3.  fungiformis,  fungiform  ;  from  a  narrow 
radical  base,  enlarged  into  a  thick  head  or  pileus  ;  as  in 
Carex,  &c.  4.  patelliformis,  patelliform  ;  from  a  very 
minute  radical  tubercle,  extenuated  into  a  round  saucer  ; 
as  in  Flagellaria. 

£.  The  dicotyledonous  and  the  remaining  monoco- 
tyledonous embryos  are,  1.  recti,  straight.  2.  crassi, 
thick.  3.  foliacei,  foliaceous.  4.  curvi,  curved.  5. 
arcuati,  bowed.  6.falcati,  sickle-shaped.  7.  unclna- 
ti,  uncinate.  8.  cyclici,  cyclical.  9.  condup/icati,  con- 
duplicate  ;  having  the  radicle  accumbent  on  the  sides  or 
chink  of  the  cotyledons,  or  having  generally  the  extre- 
mities either  not  at  all  separated,  or  at  least  only  separat- 
ed by  a  narrow  space  ;  as  in  Hemp  (Cannabis),  and 
various  Leguminous  and  Siliquose  plants.  10-  spirales, 
spiral.  11.  g/wmonici,  gnomonic,  orlikeadial;  hav- 
ing the  scape  inflected  at  a  right  angle  ;  or  having  the 
radicle  joined  at  an  obtuse  angle  with  the  cotyledons. 
12.  serpentini& sigmoidei,  serpentine  and  sigmoid;  hav- 
ing the  axis  bent  in  a  contrary  direction  near  the  two 
extremities,  or  irregularly  curved  throughout  its  whole 
length  ;  as  in  Lily  (Lilium),  and  Tulbagia,   &c. 


228  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

b.  In  regard  to  their  situation,  embryos  are,  1.  cen- 
trales, central;  either  filling  the  whole  cavity  of  the  shell, 
or  placed  only  in  its  axis,  and  within  the  albumen  ;  as  in 
the  greater  number  of  seeds,  particularly  in  the  Um- 
belliferous plants.  2-  exce?itrici,  excentric ;  placed, 
indeed,  within  the  albumen,  but  without  the  axis  of 
the  seed,  yet  so  that  they  cannot  touch  the  walls  of  the 
shell ;  as  in  Coffee  (Coffea),  and  Asparagus.  3.  pe- 
ripherici,  peripherical ;  accumbent  on  the  walls  of  the 
shell  throughout  their  whole  length,  and,  consequently, 
placed  both  without  the  axis  and  without  the  albumen  ; 
as  in  the  Grasses,  Pisonia,  &x. 

c.  The  size  of  the  embryo  varies  in  different  vege- 
tables, very  considerably,  but  admits  of  the  four  de- 
grees of  measures  which  were  mentioned  in  treating  of 
the  cotyledons*.  Indeed,  as  the  cotyledons  alone  de- 
fine the  figure,  so  they  generally  define  likewise,  the 
size  of  the  embryo  ;  and,  not  unfrequcntly,  an  embryo 
which,  of  itself,  is  very  small,  is  observed  to  become 
very  large,  by  the  accession  of  cotyledonous  matter  ; 
as  in  Scytalia  sinensis.  Thus,  from  the  bulk  alone  of 
the  cotyledons,  we  have  embryos  of  the  following 
heads  of  sizes,  viz.  1.  maximi,  very  large ;  as  very  ge- 
nerally in  the  Cucurbitaceous  plants,  the  Compound- 
flowers,  the  Verticillate  plants,  the  Siliquose,  and 
other,  plants.  2.  mediocres,  middle  sized  ;  as  in  the 
Nightshades  (Sokmum),  and  other  Luridae,  &c.  3. 
pari)i,  small ;  m  various  Umbelliferas,  the  Stellated 
plants,    &c.     4.  minuti,   minute,  in  most  of  the  mono- 

*  See  page  218. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  229 

cotyledonous  plants,  such  as  the  Orchidese,  the  Cype- 
roideae,  Multisiliquae,   and  others*. 

(/.The  number  of  the  embryos  is  very  universally 
one.  Sometimes,  however,  the  number  is  increased  by 
superfetation.  Gasrtner  once  observed  two  embryos  in 
the  seed  of  the  Pinus  Cembra  ;  both  were  in  the  same 
cavity  of  the  albumen,  but  one  of  them  was  inverted, 
the  other,  as  is  the  usual  case  in  the  plants  of  this  genus, 
was  erect.  It  appears  from  the  descriptions  and  engrav- 
ings of  some  botanists,  that  a  plurality  of  embryos 
does  sometimes  take  place  in  the  seeds  of  Misletoe 
(Viscum).  It  is,  I  think,  highly  probable  that  such  a 
plurality  of  embryos  does  occur  with  respect  to  many 
other  plants ;  since  we  know,  with  certainty,  that  su- 
perfetation may  and  does  take  place  in  the  vegetable  world, 
as  well  as  in  some  families  of  animals. 

e.  In  regard  to  its  proper  parts,  the  embryo,  as  I 
have  already  observed,  consists  of  three  parts,  viz.  1. 
the  Plumula,  2.  the  Scapus,  and,  3.  the  Radicula.  I 
shall  now  speak,  at  large,  of  these  in  the  order  in  which 
I  have  mentioned  them. 

1.  The  Plumula,  or  Plumule,  so  called  from  its 
supposed  resemblance  to  a  little  feather,  is  the  upper 
part  of  the  embryo,  which  (when  the  seed,  after  having 
been  placed  in  a  proper  situation,  and  has  begun  to  ve- 
getate) rises  upwards,  forming  all  that  part  of  the  vege- 
table which  appears  above  ground.  Gaertner  defines  it 
"  the  first  bud  of  the  new  plant,   arising  from  the  scape 

Of  all  these  natural  families  of  plants,  and  of  many  others,  explanations 
are  given  in  the  course  of  this  work.     See,  particularly,  Part  III. 


230  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

"  of  the  embryo  imprisoned  in  the  seed,  and  ready  to 
"  pass  afterward  into  true  leaves  of  the  plant".  Dr. 
Grew  called  this  part  the  Plume*.  The  English  name 
plumule  seems  preferable,  especially  as  it  is  literally 
the  import  of  the  Latin  word  plumula,  which  almost 
all  botanists  have  adopted.  Linnaeus  defines  it  "the 
"  ascending  scaly  part  of  the  corcle  :  "  pars  corculi 
"  squamosa  adscendensf." 

Many  embryos  are  destitute  of  the  plumule.  This 
part  is  very  constantly  wanting  in  all  the  monocotyledo- 
nous  seeds,  except,  perhaps,  a  few  of  the  Grasses. 
It  is,  likewise,  very  often  absent  from  the  dicotyledo- 
nous seeds  ;  or,  at  least,  it  is  entirely  concealed  with- 
in the  scape.  Gaertner  denominates  these  concealed 
plumules,  immerse,  or  immersed.  On  the  other  hand, 
the  plumula  emersa,  or  emersed  plumules,  of  the 
same  writer,  are  always  conspicuous,  and  the  radicles 
are  placed  in  the  vertex,  yet  in  such  a  manner  as  to  re- 
main between  the  lobes  of  the  cotyledons,  and  not  to 
come  into  view  except  by  removing  these  parts  from 
each  other ;  owing  to  the  narrowness'  of  the  place, 
these  kinds  of  plumules  are  always  compressed,  and 
have  conduplicate  leaflets,  which  are  either  simple  or 
compound. 

The  simple  plumule  (simplex  plumula  J,  has  ses- 
sile leaflets  in  opposite  pairs  :  these  leaflets  are,  1.  te- 
reti- acuminata,  cylindrical-acuminate.  2.  lineari-ob- 
longa,  linear-oblong.  3.  lanceolata,  lanceolate.  4. 
ov at lo-  acuminata ,     ovate-acuminate.       5.    convoluto-pel- 

*  Dr.  Darwin  and  other  writers  have  adopted  this  name. 
■\  Philosophia  Botanica,  &c.  p.  54.  ^.  86. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  231 

tata,  convolute-peltate  ;  as  in  Tropaaolum.     6.  spiralis, 
spiral ;    as  in  Gyrocarpus  Jacquini. 

The  compound  plumule  (composita plumulaj,  on 
the  other  hand,  supports  more  than  one  leaflet  upon  a 
common  petiole,  and  these  are,  1.  conjugal  a,  conjugate  ; 
either  two-paired,  or  bijugous  (bijuga)  ;  as  in  Ara- 
chidna,  or  many-paired  ( 'multijuga ) ',  as  in  Juglans, 
&c-  2.  digit  at  a,  digitate ;  this  is  very  uncommon, 
but  occurs  in  the  Horse-Chesnut  (iEsculus  Hippocas- 
tanum),  and  in  Lupin  (Lupinus).  3.  coacervata, 
heaped  together  ;  as  in  Lathyrus,  Vicia,  and  others. 
These,  Gaertner  acknowledges,  seem  properly  to  be- 
long to  the  many-paired ;  but  they  may  be  designated 
by  another  name,  since  the  leaflets  are  so  closely 
crowded,  and  perhaps  intermixed  with  the  stipules, 
that  from  the  minuteness  of  the  parts,  they  cannot  be 
easily  distinguished  from  each  other*. 

2.  The  Scapus,  or  Scape,  is  much  more  frequent- 
ly wanting  in  vegetables  than  is  the  plumule-  Indeed, 
the  greater  number  of  embryos  are  scapeless,  or  desti- 
tute of  this  part.  Gaertner,  however,  thinks  proper  to 
denominate  those  embryos  caulescent,  which  are  fur- 
nished with  a  very  long  radicle ;  especially  a  radicle 
which  grows  somewhat  thicker  downwards  ;  as  in  Ces- 
trum,  and  Persimmon  (Diospyros  virginianaj") ;  or 
those  in  which  the  cotyledons  are  separated  by  a  slender 
stripe  from  the  somewhat  swollen  capitate  radicle  ;  as 
in  Misletoe,  Barberry,  &c.     The  same  learned  writer 

*  For  representations  of  the  plumule,  see  Plate  v.  Fig.  F.  2.     Fig.  G.  I.    Fig. 
H.  1.     Fig.  N.     Fig.  O. 

t  See  Plate  v.     Fig.  N.  and  Fig.  O. 


232  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

admits,  that,  in  the  greater  number  of  embryos,  certain 
limits  between  the  end  of  the  stem,  or  scape,  and  the 
beginning  of  the  radicle,  are  not  given  ;  and  that  a 
great  portion  of  almost  all  those  scapes,  v/hilst  the  bu- 
siness of  germination  is  proceeding,  descends  into  the 
earth,  and  is  .there  evolved  into  a  real  radicle,  or  root. 
Consequently,  every  part  of  the  embryo,  that  is  placed 
beneath  the  cotyledons,  may,  with  propriety,  be  enu- 
merated among  the  radicles. 

LiNN-ffius  and  most  other  writers  make  no  mention 
of  the  scape,  but  divide  the  embryo  (corculum)  into 
two  parts  only,  viz.  the  plumule,  and  the  radicle. 
But  although  the  scape  be  frequently  wanting,  there 
does  seem  to  be  a  propriety  in  designating  by  this  sepa- 
rate name,  a  part  of  the  embryo- 

3.  The  Radicula,  or  Radicle,  is  by  far  the  most 
constant  part  not  only  of  the  embryo,  but  of  the  whole 
kernel  :  for  we  find  it  in  those  seeds  which  have  no 
other  vestige  of  the  embryo.  The  name  of  radicle  was 
given  to  this  part  of  the  seed  by  Dr.  Grew,  and  has 
been  retained  by  Ludwig,  G*ertner,  and  the  greater 
number  of  the  modern  botanists.  Linnaeus,  however, 
thought  proper  to  designate  this  part  of  the  embryo  by 
the  name  of  Rostcllum>  and  defines  it  "  the  simple  de- 
"  scending  part  of  the  corcle  :"  "  pars  corculi  simplex 
"  descendens*". 

In  almost  all  the  seeds  which  have,  hitherto,    been 
examined,    we  find  only  a  single  radicle  ( radicula  soli- 

*  Philosophia  Botanica,  &.c.  p.  54.  \.  86. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  233 

t aria  J  to  each  embryo.  This  is  the  observation  of 
Gaertner,  who  examined  the  seeds  of  1054  plants,  be- 
longing to  distinct  genera.  Some  embryos,  however,  he 
admits,  are  furnished  with  more  radicles  than  one.  Thus, 
three,  four,  or  six  together  of  such  radicles  (radicula- 
tern<s,  quaterrus,  sense  J,  properly  formed  and  distinct 
from  each  other,  are  found  in  the  seeds  of  Rye  (Secale), 
Wheat  (Triticum),  and  Barley  (Hordeum),  "  but  in  no 
"  other  seeds  hitherto  known*".  It  is  probable,  how- 
ever, that  the  radicle  is  less  constantly  solitary  than 
Gsertner  imagined.  The  fibres,  or  roots,  of  this  part  of 
the  embryo  may,  in  numerous  instances,  be  distinct, 
but,  owing  to  their  minuteness,  and  cohesion  by  means 
of  mucilaginous  or  glutinous  matter,  they  may  seem  to 
constitute  only  a  single,  undivided  body.  I  think,  I 
have,  in  one  instance,  distinctly  observed  several  radicles 
to  a  single  embryo  of  the  Persimmon. 

a-  In  regard  to  its  figure,  the  radicle  is,  1.  puncticu- 
larhy  puncticular  ;  appearing  like  a  mere  white  point  in 
a  kernel,  which,  in  every  other  respect,  is  solid;  as  in  the 
Mosses,  and  other  more  imperfect  plants.  In  all  other 
cases,  the  radicle  projects.  2.  tub  axillaris,  tubercular; 
but  little  different  from  a  thicker  solid  dot  or  point;  as 
in  Pepper  (Piper),  and  Flagellaria.  3.  conica,  conical; 
arising  from  the  cotyledons  with  a  broad  base,  and  end- 
ing quickly  in  a  point ;  as  in  Enchanter's-Nightshade 
(Circasa),  and  many  other  plants.  4.  tcret'iuscida, 
roundish.  5.  filiformis,  filiform.  6.  cylindrical  cy- 
lindrical.    7.  fiisiformis,   vcl  clavata,  fusiform,  or  club- 

'  Gjertner. 

h  h 


234  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

shaped  ;  as  in  Coffee,  various  Leguminous  plants,  &c; 
8.  capitata,  capitate  ;  as  in  Zinnia,  Viscum,  and  Ber- 
beris.  9.  ovato-g/obosa,  ovate-globular ;  as  in  Cassy- 
ta,  and  in  all  the  minute  and  globular  embryos  ;  for  in 
these  the  radicle  forms  the  principal  part  of  the  embryo, 
as  in  Sundew  (Drosera),  and  others.  10.  recta,  straight; 
as  is  the  case  with  most  short  radicles.  11.  curva, 
curved  ;   as  in  most  of  the  long  radicles. 

b.  In  regard  to  its  length,  the  radicle  is,  1.  longis- 
sima,  very  long  ;  that  is,  longer  than  the  cotyledons  ; 
as  in  Rhizophora,  Anguillaria,  and  others.  2.  'aqualis, 
equal :  that  is,  as  long  as  the  cotyledons  ;  instanced  in 
most  of  the  Umbelliferous  plants,  and  others.  3.  brcvis 
&?  brevissima,  short  and  very  short ;  that  is,  shorter  than 
the  cotyledons  :  instanced  in  all  the  monocotyledonous 
plants,  such  as  the  Verticillata?,  &x.  in  the  Persimmon*, 
&c. 

c.  The  proper  situation  of  the  radicle  always  seems 
to  be  at  the  base  of  the  embryo  ;  but  the  relative  situa- 
tion has  a  reference  to  the  other  internal  parts  of  the 
seed  ;  and,  in  an  especial  manner,  to  the  receptacle  of 
the  fruit  and  seed. 

As  to  the  other  internal  parts  of  the  seed,  and 
especially  with  regard  to  the  albumen,  the  situation  of 
the  radicle  suffers  exactly  the  same  modifications,  which 
the  embryo  itself  does:  hence  radicles  aje,  1.  central. 
2.  excentric.  3.  pcriphcrical.  But,  from  their  combi- 
nation with  the  cotyledons,  a  new  relation  arises  amongst 
these  parts,  and  thence  the  radicle  becomes,   1.  directa, 

*  See  Plate  v.  FiS  N.  and  Fig.  O. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  235 

direct ;  continuing  to  run  out  in  one  line  with  the  axis 
of  the  cotyledons,  whether  it  be  straight  or  curved  ;  and 
at  the  base  of  the  cotyledons  does  not  suddenly  take  any 
other  course,  as  in  the  straight,  sickle-shaped,  hooked, 
bowed,  and  cochleate  embryos.  2.  hiclinata,  inclined  ; 
the  axis  being  joined,  at  a  right  or  obtuse  angle,  with 
the  axis  of  the  cotyledons.  3.  reflex a,  reflected;  sud- 
denly recurved  near  the  base  of  the  cotyledons,  towards 
their  other  extremity,  and  is  either  accumbent  on  their 
sides  or  chink  ;  as  in  the  conduplicate  embryos,  especi- 
ally of  the  Siliquose  and  Leguminous  plants.  4.  invo- 
hita,  involute  ;  constituting  the  axis  of  the  embryo, 
about  which  the  cotyledons  are  so  rolled,  as  to  conceal 
a  very  large  part  of  the  radicle  ;  as  in  Ayenia,  Pome- 
granate (Punica),   and  others. 

As  to  the  proper  receptacle  of  the  fruit  or  seed, 
which  is  a  relation  of  situation  of  great  consequence  to 
be  attended  to,  the  radicle  is,  1.  supera  s-  ascendens,  su- 
perior or  ascending,  respecting  the  apex  of  the  fruit 
with  its  point.  Those  radicles  are  denominated  simply 
superior,  which  tend  directly  upwards,  and  rise  from 
the  highest  part  of  the  seed  ;  as  in  the  Umbelliferae, 
Asperifoliae,  and  others.  Those  are  named  ascending, 
which  arise  from  the  base  or  side  of  the  seed,  and  tend 
upwards  at  their  apex  ;  as  in  Hemp,  Corrigiola,  &c. 
2.  hi/era  s.  descenckns,  inferior  or  descending,  respect- 
ing the  base  or  peduncle  of  the  fruit  with  its  apex. 
A  radicle  is  strictly  named  inferior,  which,  rising  from 
the  bottom  of  the  seed,  tends  directly  downwards  ;  as 
in  the  Compound-flowers,  the  Ycrticillate  plants,  and 
others  ;  and  it  is  named  descending,  when,  rising  from 
the  highest  part  of  the  embryo,  it  tends  towards  the  base 


236  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

with  its  apex  ;  as  in  Meesia,  Marvel  of  Peru  (Mirabi- 
lis),  and  others.  3.  ccntripetce,  centripetal ;  either  ab- 
solutely or  relatively  such.  In  a  simple  fruit,  the  former 
respect  the  axis,  or  common  receptacle  of  the  seed  with 
their  apex  ;  as  in  Tulip  (Tulipa),  Tobacco,  and  others. 
In  a  conjugate  or  many-capsuled  fruit,  the  latter  are, 
indeed,  turned  to  the  common  axis,  but  in  partial  peri- 
carps only  respect  the  internal  side  ;  as  in  Helicteres, 
Monkshood  (Aconitum),  Larkspur  (Delphinium),  and 
others.  4.  The  centrifuge,  or  centrifugal  radicles,  are, 
un'ilaterales,  unilateral,  or  one-sided  ;  all  respecting  one 
side  of  the  pericarp;  or,  in  a  naked  seed,  the  circum- 
ference of  its  horizontal  plane ;  as  in  Beet  (Beta), 
Goosefoot  (Chenopodium),  and  others :  bllaterales, 
bilateral,  or  two-sided  ;  turned  to  two  directly  opposite 
regions  of  the  pericarp  ;  as  in  Bog-Bean  (Menyanthes 
trifoliata,  &c),  the  Siliquose  plants,  and  others  : 
mult  Hater  ales,  multilateral,  or  many-sided  ;  directing 
their  points  to  different  places,  or  to  every  surface  of  the 
dissepiments  and  internal  parietes,  or  walls ;  as  in 
Cistus  Helianthemum,  the  Cucurbitaceous  plants,  and 
others  :  vaga,  vague  ;  which  have  not  the  same  cer- 
tain situation  in  all  seeds,  but  are  directed  with  their 
points  towards  different  parts  ;  as  in  Ginger  (Zingiber), 
Water-Lily  (Nymphsea),  and  others. 

Such  are  the  various  modifications  to  which  the 
tender  embryo  is  liable.  It  continues  "  imprisoned  with* 
"  in  its  seed",  and  remains  (to  use  the  happy  expression 
of  Gasrtner)  "  in  a  profound  sleep",  until  it  is  awakened 
by  the  approaching  germination,  and  meets  the  light 
and  air  to  grow  into  a  plant,  similar  to  its  parent.  But, 
even  in  its  encumbered  or  involved  state,  the  embryo 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  237 

possesses  life,  which,  however,  is  not  obviously  active, 
and  by  no  means  of  equal  duration  in  all.  Or,  if  we 
deny  to  the  quiescent  and  slumbering  seed,  an  inherent 
principle  of  life  (whatever  that  may  be),  we  must,  at 
least,  admit  that  its  embryon,  and  other,  parts  are  en- 
dowed with  a  peculiar  (and,  as  yet,  incomprehensible) 
capacity  for  receiving  life,  from  the  agency  of  heat, 
water,  air,  and  other  stimuli*. 

Having  finished  the  consideration  of  the  various 
parts  of  the  kernel  (I  mean  the  more  technical  history 
of  these  parts,  for  several  important  points  in  their  na- 
tural history  remain  to  be  discussed),  I  proceed,  in  the 
next  place,  to  treat  of  some  other  parts  of  the  seed,  in 
general.  These  parts  are,  1-  the  Pappus.  2.  the  Coma. 
3.  the  Cauda.     4.  the  Ala  :  and,   5.  the  Crista. 

All  these  are,  by  Gaertner,  denominated  accessary 
parts  of  the  fruits  and  seeds  ("  partes  fructuum  atque 
seminum  accessorise"),  because  they  may  be  present  or 
absent,  without  injury  to  the  structure  of  the  seed.  It 
would,  perhaps,  have  been  better  to  have  treated  of 
these  accessary  parts,  along  with  the  testa,  and  other 
integuments  of  the  seed  ;  but,  upon  the  whole,  I  have 
thought  it  more  proper  to  treat  of  them,  in  this  place, 
after  the  consideration  of  the  kernel,  especially  as  the 
principal  of  these  parts  are  chiefly  instrumental  in  the 
propagation  of  the  ripe  seed- 

1«  The  Pappusf,  or  Aigrette,  is  a  sort  of  feathery  or 
hairy  crown,   with  which  many  seeds,   especially  those 

*  See  page  105. 
t  In  the  Latin  language,    this  word  has  the    following   significations,  viz.  a. 
grand-sire,  an  old  man,  thistle-down,  and  several  others.     In  this  last  sense,  it  is 
employed  by  Lucretius  (Lib.  iii.  1.  337). 


238  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

of  the  Compound-flowers,  are  furnished,  evidently 
intended  for  the  great  business  of  the  dissemination  or 
dispersion  of  the  seed,  to  a  considerable  distance. 


The  word  pappus  is  commonly  translated  Down*  : 
"  but  hence,  as  Dr.  Martyn  observes)  arises  a  confusion 
"  between  this  and  the  lanugo  or  tomentum  on  the  surface 
qf  leaves,  Sec",  which,  both  in  Britain  and  the  United- 
States,  is  generally  called  down.  Some  writers  translate 
this  word  by  Feather,  but  there  are  objections  to  this 
word.  The  French  call  it  aigrette.  "  The  ladies  have 
"  adopted  that  term :  why  may  not  we  ?" 

Linnaeus  explains  the  pappus  to  be  "a  leathery 
"  or  hairy  flying  crown  to  the  seed  :"  "  Corona  (semi- 
"  nis)  pennacea,  pilosave  volitansf ". 

Different  kinds  of  pappus  are  enumerated  by  the 
botanists  :  Thus  we  have,  1.  pappus  sessllisy  a  sessile 
aigrette  ;  or  a  down  placed  immediately  upon  the  seed, 
in  the  form  of  a  crown  ;  as  iii  Hawkweed  (Hieracium), 
in  Goats-Beard  (Tragopogon),  and  others.  2.  the 
pappus  stiphatus,  or  stipitate  aigrette,  is  supported  on  a 
thread,  called  the  stipe  J,  and  elevated  by  it  considera- 
bly above  the  vertex  of  the  seed  ;  as  in  Common  Dan- 
delion (Leontodon  Taraxacum),  and  many  others. 

The  pappus  is  likewise,  1.  capillaris^  or  capillary, 
and,  2-  phmiosus,  or  feathery.     The  capillary  aigrette, 

*  Thus  Sandys  : 

"  Like  scatter'd  down,  by  howling  Eurus  blown 
"  By  rapid  whirlwinds  from  his  mansion  thrown". 

See,  also,  the  lines  from  Thomson,  in  page  241. 

f  See  Philosophia  Botanica,  8cc.  p.  54.  §.  86. 

X  See  page  28. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  239 

or  pappus,  is  simple,  having  the  hairs  undivided*  ;  as  in 
Silk-  Cotton-tree  (Bombax  pentandrum),  Groundsel  (Se- 
necio),  Golden-rod  (Solidago),  and  various  other  Com- 
pound-flowers. The  feather)-  aigrette,  on  the  contrary, 
is  not  simple,  but  branched,  like  a  feather  ;  having,  in 
other  words,  setaceous  or  chaffy  rays,  with  lateral  hairs, 
which  are  always  capillary. 

Other  species  of  pappus  are  enumerated,  such 
as,  1.  aristatus,  awned  ;  having  one,  two,  three,  and, 
sometimes  more,  short  rigid  rays,  often  hooked  back- 
wards ;  as  in  Bidens.  2.  stel/atus,  stellate  ;  consisting 
of  five  filiform  and  attenuated  and  spreading  rays  ;  as  in 
Geropogon.  3.  spitiosus,  thorny ;  having  acinular  and 
pungent  rays  ;  as  in  Zinnia.  4.  sctaceus,  differing  from 
capillary  (above  mentioned)  only  in  the  greater  rigidity, 
and  more  numerous  teeth  ;  as  in  Chrysocoma.  5.  ciliatus, 
ciliate ;  between  setaceous  and  feathery.  6«  lanatus, 
woolly  ;  in  which  the  vertex  of  the  seed  is  crowned  with 
a  white  ring,  formed  of  a  very  short  and  dense  wool ;  as 
in  Cineraria  glauca. 

b.  In  regard  to  its  duration,  the  pappus  is.  1.  peris- 
te?isy  permament ;  continuing  with  the  seed  ;  and,  of 
course,  this  species  of  aigrette  is  peculiarly  favourable 
to  the  dispersion  of  seeds.  2.  caducus,  s.  fiuxilis\  ca- 
ducous, or  very  temporary  :  this  is  less  common  than 
the  other,  and  is  principally  given  to  the  larger  and  hea- 
vier seeds,  as  those  of  Thistle  (Carduus),  Cotton- 
Thistle  (Onopordum),  and  others  :  it  is,  however, 
found  in  the  smaller  seeds  also,  as  in  those  of  Sou  - 

*  Although  the  capillary  pappus  is  very  slender,  like  a  human  liair,  it  is.  never- 
theless, marked  with  very  minute  teeth,  whicharcsonietiir.es  nearer,  sometimes, 
more  remote  1'rom  each  other. 


240  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

Thistle  (Sonchus),  Lettuce  (Lactuca),  and  others.  By 
some  writers,  this  last-mentioned  kind  of  aigrette  is  de- 
nominated/7<2j&/>z/.y  decidzius,  or  deciduous  aigrette. 

A  knowledge  of  the  aigrette  is  of  essential  conse- 
quence in  the  study  of  botany.  Linnaeus  very  generally 
employs  the  many  varieties  which  obtain  in  this  minute 
and  delicately-organized  part  of  the  plant,  in  discrimi- 
nating the  different  genera  of  the  plants  of  his  class 
Syngenesia.  Gasrtner  has,  certainly,  very  unjustly  de- 
nied Linnasus's  attention  to  the  pappus.  Vaillant,  a 
long  time  ago,  always  attended  to  this  part  of  the  fruc- 
tification in  drawing  the  characters  of  his  genera  ;  and 
it  is  certain,  that  he  examined  and  defined  it,  with  un- 
common care  :  "  Whence  (says  Gaertnen  his  genera  are 
"  much  preferable  to  those  established  by  Linnaeus". 

The  aigrette,  as  I  have  already  observed,  is  evi- 
dently intended  for  the  great  business  of  the  dissemina- 
tion or  dispersion  of  the  seeds-  This  is,  indeed,  one  of 
the  wonderful  contrivances  employed  by  the  liberal  hand 
of  nature  for  distributing  her  vegetable  productions  over 
the  surface  of  the  earth.  There  can  be  little  doubt, 
that  many  species  of  plants,  particularly  among  the 
Compound-flowers,  owing  to  their  being  supplied  with 
the  aigrette,  are  now  the  common  inhabitants  of  many 
parts  of  the  world,  in  which,  originally,  they  were 
unknown. 

Thomson  (who  has  very  happily  been  called  the 
Naturalist's  Poet)  has  so  beautifully,  and  at  the  same 
time  so  philosophically,  alluded  to  the  dispersion  of 
plants  by  means  of  the  apparatus  which  I  am  consider- 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  241 

ing,  that  I  cannot  refrain  from  concluding  this  account 
of  the  aigrette,  with  his  lines  on  the  subject : 

A  fresher  gale 

"  Begins  to  wave  the  wood,  and  stir  the  stream, 
"  Sweeping  with  shadowy  gusts  the  fields  of  corn  ; 
"  While  the  quail  clamours  for  his  running  mate. 
"  Wide  o'er  the  thistly  lawn,  as  swells  the  breeze, 
"  A  whit'ning  shower  of  vegetable  down 
"  Amusive  floats.     The  kind  impartial  care 
"  Of  Nature  nought  disdains  :  thoughtful  to  feed 
"  Her  lowest  sons,  and  clothe  the  coming  year, 
"  From  field  to  field  the  feather'd  seeds  she  wings". 

Summer.  1.  1639-1648. 

2.  The  Coma  is  very  nearly  related  to  the  pappus  ; 
for,  like  it,  it  is  formed  of  hairs  which  are  placed  upon 
the  vertex  of  the  seed,  and  collected  into  a  bundle. 
According  to  Gartner,  it  differs  from  a  pappus,  because 
in  the  coma,  the  hairs  derive  their  origin  from  the  shell 
of  the  seed,  and  not  from  the  proper  calyx  of  the 
flower  ;  and  because  all  the  comate  seeds  are  furnished 
with  a  true  pericarp  ;  as  in  Willow-herb  (Epilobium), 
and  others.  These,  therefore,  according  to  the  same 
botanist,  are  improperly  considered  as  pappous  seeds. 

3.  The  Cauda,  or  Tail,  resembles  a  slender  stipe, 
proceeding  from  the  vertex  of  the  seed,  hairy  from  the 
base  to  the  apex,  and,  in  the  naked  seeds,  produced 
from  the  persisting  style  of  the  ovary  ;  but  in  the  cover- 
ed seeds,  from  the  testa,  or  shell.  In  both  these  cases, 
the  cauda  is  much  longer  than  the  seed  ;  as  in  Virgin's 
Bower  (Clematis),  in  Pasque-flower  (Anemone  Pul- 
satilla),  &c. 


242  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

The  hairy  tail,  which  proceeds  from  the  base  of 
the  ovary,  as  in  Cat-tail  (Typha),  and  Plane-tree,  or 
Button-wood  (Platanus  occidentalis)  is  to  be  account- 
ed a  mere  and  simple  peduncle  of  the  fruit. 

4.  The  Ala,  or  Wing,  is  a  broad  flexible  and 
membranous  expansion,  fixed  to  the  vertex,  back,  or 
sides  of  certain  fruits  and  seeds,  and  thus  facilitating 
their  dispersion.  When  it  occupies  the  vertex  a/id 
back,  it  is  especially  denominated  awing  :  but  when  it 
surrounds  the  sides,  it  is  called  a  Margin  ( Margo ). 
Linnaeus  thus  defines  the  wing  :  "  Ala,  membrana,  qua 
"  volitante  disseminatur,  affixa  semini*". 

Seeds  that  are  furnished  with  wings  are,  1.  unia- 
lata,  one-winged;  as  in  Mahagoni  (Swietenia),  and 
others.  2.  trialata,  three-winged ;  as  in  Moringa. 
To  this  head  may,  also,  be  referred  the  seeds  of 
Rhubarb  (Rheum),  and  Buck-wheat.  3.  quadrialata, 
four-winged.  I  believe  we  have  not,  hitherto,  disco- 
vered any  examples  of  four-winged  seeds,  except  in  the 
genus  Combretum. 

A  membranous  margin  f  Margo  membranaceus J  is 
not  uncommon  in  seeds,  and  occurs  very  differently  form- 
ed. Thus,  it  is,  1.  planus  &?  integer,  flat  and  entire  ; 
as  in  Allamanda,  and  others-  2.  apice  &  bast  emarginatus, 
emarginate,  at  the  base  and  apex  ;  as  in  Lilac  (Syringa), 
&c.  3.  cymbiformis,  boat-shaped  ;  as  in  Marigold  (Ca- 
lendula), &c.  4.  bullatus,  bullate ;  appearing  like 
blisters  ;  as  in  Cynoglossum  omphalodes.  5.  in  dorsum 
reflexus,  reflected  upon  the  back,  and  forming  spurious 
cells,  as  in  Arctotis,  &c. 

*  Philosojihia  Botanica,  &c.  p.  54.  \.  86. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  243 

The  preceding  terminology  applies  principally  to 
seeds.  But  pericarps,  also,  are  furnished  with  the  ala, 
or  wing.  Such  pericarps  have  received  the  following 
names,  viz.  1.  monopterygia,  one-winged  ;  being  fur- 
nished with  only  one  wing ;  as  in  Ash  (Fraxinus),  and 
others.  2.  dipterygia,  two-winged  ;  as  in  the  conjugate 
fruit  of  Maple  (Acer),  and  in  Halesia  diptera,  an  Ame- 
rican vegetable.  3.  tripterygia,  three-winged ;  as  in 
Begonia,  &c.  4.  tetraptera,  four-winged ;  as  in  the 
beautiful  Halesia  tetraptera,  and  in  Tetragonia.  5. 
pentaptera^  polyptera^  five-winged,  and  many- winged  ; 
as  in  Guaiacum,  and  in  Crown- Imperial  (Fritillaria), 
and  others- 

The  membranous  margin  is  not  uncommon  in  some 
of  the  more  compressed  pericarps  ;  as  in  Shepherds- 
purse  (Thlaspi),  and  others  :  but  in  seeds  it  is  much 
more  common. 

5.  The  Crista,  or  Crest,  is  very  nearly  allied  to 
the  wring,  but  is  narrower,  less  flexible,  and  formed  of 
a  coriaceous  or  cork-like  matter,  and  always  placed  on 
the  back  of  fruits. 

The  crista  has  received  different  names.  Thus,  it 
is,  1.  sen-ata,  serrated.  2.  laciniata,  laciniated-  3. 
dentibus  incisa,  toothed.  4.  crispata,  curled ;  as  in 
Daucus,  and  others. 

Besides  the  preceding,  Gaertner  has  enumerated 
other,  accessary  parts  of  fruits  and  seeds  :  such  as,  1- 
Rostrum,  a  Beak  ;  generally  proceeding  from  the  perist- 
ing  style,  as  in  Stone-crop  (Sedum),  Hellebore  (Helle- 
borus),  and  others.   2.  Costa  fc?  Juga,  Ribs  and  Ridges  ; 


244  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

elevated,  rounded,  or  muricated  furrows,  placed  on  the 
back  of  seeds  or  pericarps,  and  separated  from  each 
other,  by  flattish  intermediate  spaces ;  as  in  Horn- 
Beam  (Carpinus),  the  Umbelliferous  plants,  and  others. 
3-  Strophiola,  Strophioles ;  these  are  fungous,  glandular 
or  callous  epiphyses,  generally  of  an  oblong  form,  and 
to  be  found  only  upon  the  ventral  side  of  the  seed  ;  as  in 
Wild-Ginger,  or  Asarabacca  (Asarum  canadense),  and 
others.  4.  Spina,  or  Thorns-  5.  Glochides,  Barbs. 
6.  Verruca,  or  Warts.  7.  Squama,  Scales.  8. 
Pubes,  Pubescence.  9.  Pruina,  Hoariness,  and 
others. 

Most  of  these  accessary  parts  of  the  seed,  and  pe- 
ricarp, have  already  been  mentioned,  in  treating  of  the 
different  kinds  of  fulcres,  as  Linnaeus  calls  them*.  It 
is  unnecessary,  therefore,  to  say  any  thing  further  on  the 
subject,  in  this  place. 

Beside  the  semen,  or  seed,  properly  so  called,  two 
other  terms  are  referred  to  this  general  head,  by  Lin- 
naeus :  these  are,   1-  the  JVux,  and,  2.  the  Propago- 

1.  The  Nux,  or  Nut,  is  a  seed  covered  with  a 
shell.  Linnaeus  thus  defines  it,  "  Semen  tectum  epi- 
"  dermide  osseof".  Gasrtner  defines  it  "  a  hard  con- 
"  ceptacle,  either  not  opening  at  all,  or,  if  it  do  open, 
"never  separating  into  more  than  two  valves". 
The  following  account  of  the  nut  is  principally  taken 
from  this  truly  meritorious  author. 

The  nut  has  an  affinity,  on  the  one  hand,  with 
capsules,  and  on  the  other  hand,  with  drupes.  Sometimes, 

*  See  pages  82-91.  f  Delineatio  Plantae. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  245 

it  is  even  referred  to  the  naked  seeds.  From  the  capsule, 
it  differs  in  the  total  want  of  valves,  and  in  the  base 
often  having  a  scraped  or  filed  appearance  to  some 
distance.  From  the  drupe,  it  differs  in  the  manifest  na- 
kedness of  the  putamen,  or  shell ;  or  if  there  be  a  rind, 
in  the  incomplete  opening  at  the  apex.  Lastly,  it  differs 
from  the  naked  seeds  in  the  remarkable  thickness  of  the 
putamen ;  the  easy  separation  of  it  from  the  kernel, 
and  the  manifest  umbilical  vessels,  placed  within  the 
cavity  of  the  putamen  ;  as  in  Cotton-grass  (Eriophorum), 
many  of  the  Asperifolias,  &c 

a.  In  regard  to  its  integuments,  the  nut  is,  1.  nuda, 
naked.  (By  far  the  greater  number  of  nuts  are  naked, 
or,  at  least,  clothed  with  a  cuticle  which  is  hardly  dis- 
cernible). 2.  glabra,  smooth.  3.  splendens,  shining. 
4.  rugosa,  wrinkled.  5-  subpubescens,  somewhat  pube- 
scent. 6.  corticata,  corticated ;  covered  with  a  rind 
f  cortex  J  :  this  rind  is  either  membranous,  and  fre- 
quently extended  into  a  wing,  or  ribs,  as  in  Pine, 
Houndstongue  (Cynoglossum),  and  others ;  or  coria- 
ceous and  thick,  as  in  Juglans.  The  latter  are  nearly 
allied  to  dry  drupes.  7.  involucrata,  involucred.  Nuts 
are  more  generally  supplied  with  an  involucre  than  any 
other  species  of  pericarps  ;  as  in  Chesnut,  Beech,  Yew, 
Juniper,  Hazel,   Oak,  and  others*. 

b.  In  regard  to  its  consistence,  the  nut  is,  1.  sicca, 
dry.  2.  Jirma,  firm.  3-  dura,  hard.  4.  coriacea, 
coriaceous ;  as  in  Chesnut,  and  others.  5.  Crustacea^ 
crustaceous  ;   as  in  many  of  the  Rough-leaved  plants. 

*  Several    of  the   seeds  here  denominated  nuts,  are  referred  by  Linnaeus,  to 
ot)ier  heads     See  page  194,  &c. 


246  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

6.  cavernoso-coriacea,  cavernose-coriaceous ;  as  in  Ca- 
shew ( Anacardium),  and  in  Acajuba.  7.  ossea,  bony  ; 
as  in  Walnut,  Hazel,  &c.  8.  lapidea,  stony  ;  as  in  My- 
osotis,  and  others. 

c.  In  the  nut,  there  is  no  spontaneous  opening  before 
the  germination  of  the  seed  ;  nor  does  the  number  of  the 
valves,  in  any  instance  yet  known,  exceed  two.  The 
English  Walnut  (Juglans  regia)  alone  has  a  manifest 
suture.  Trapa  alone  opens  with  a  hole  at  the  vertex. 
Many  of  the  nuts  open  at  the  base,  or  at  their  insertion, 
with  a  round  aperture,  or  chink  ;  as  in  Lycopsis  arven- 
sis  (Small  Bugloss),  and  others. 

d.  In  regard  to  its  internal  fabric,  the  nut  is,  1. 
simplicissima,  very  simple.  2.  unilocular  is ,  unilocular, 
or  one-celled  ;  as  in  by  far  the  greater  number  of  nuts. 
3.  bilocularis,  bilocular,  or  two-celled ;  as  in  Cerinthe 
and  Trapa.  Very  few  nuts  are  two-celled-  4.  trilocu- 
laris,  trilocular,  or  three-celled  ;  as  in  Beech  and  Oak. 
5.  semiquadrilocularisy  half- four-celled  ;  as  in  Chesnut, 

From  this  view  of  the  subject,  it  is  evident,  that 
nut  is  a  pretty  comprehensive  term,  embracing  a  consi- 
derable variety  of  seeds,  such  as  those  of  the  Chesnut, 
Beech,  Chinquepin,  Walnut  and  Hickery,  Hazel,  Oak,* 
Juniper,  Yew,  Oil-nutf,  and  others. 

2.  Prop  ago  is  the  name  of  the  seed  of  the  Mosses. 
It  is  thus  denned  by  Linnaeus  :   "  Semen  Musci  decor- 

*  The  cup  of  the  acorn  is  denominated,  by  late  writers,  cupula. 
t  A  new  Pentandrous  genus  of  plants,  allied   to  Nerium.     It  is  a  native  of 
Pennsylvania,  Virginia,  and  other  parts  of  the  United-States. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  247 

"  ticatum,  detectum  1750*".  The  Swedish  naturalist 
supposed,  that  these  seed  differed  from  other  seeds  in 
having  a  naked  corcle  (embryo),  without  bark  or  cotyle- 
dons. He  informs  us,  that  he  made  this  discovery  in 
1750.  A  few  years  after  this  period,  David  Meese  as- 
serted, that  the  seed  of  the  Mosses  are  furnished  with 
their  proper  cotyledons.  The  industrious  Hedwig,  as 
has  already  been  observed  f,  also  asserts,  that  the  seed 
of  this  great  family  of  plants  are,  like  those  of  other 
plants,  supplied  with  cotyledons.  Gsertner  admits  the 
existence  of  acotyledonous  plants,  and  refers  to  this  head 
the  MossesJ.  By  this  author,  the  propago  is  consider- 
ed as  a  species  of  gemma,  or  bud,  perfectly  simple, 
and  destitute  of  true  leaflets,  assuming  different  forms, 
sometimes  entirely  naked,  and  sometimes  shut  up  in  a 
bark-like  case ;  which,  at  length,  separates  sponta- 
neously from  its  parent,  and  is  scattered  like  a  seed. 
The  bulb-like  granules  ("  grana  bulbiformia")  of  G. 
C.  Oeder§  are  referred  to  this  head. 

I  resume  the  consideration  of  the  seed,  in  general. 

a.  In  regard  to  the  number  of  the  seeds,  this  is  a 
very  variable  circumstance  in  different  vegetables  :  1. 
Some  plants  have  only  a  single  seed[|.  This  is  the  case 
with  the  Sea-Pink  (Statice  Armeria),  and  Bistort  (Poly- 
gonum Bistorta).  2.  Some  have  two  seeds,  as  Wood- 
roof**and  the  Umbelliferous  plants.  3.  Some  have  three, 
as   Spurge  (Euphorbia).     4.   Some  have  four,  as  the 

*  Philosophia  Botanica,  8tc.  p.  54.  \.  86.  "  Propagines  Muscorum  sunt  scmina 
"  destituta  tunica  &  cotyledonilms  adeoque  nudi  corculi  Plumula,  obi  Rostdluni 
««  infigitur  calyci  plants".     Ibid.  p.  57.  \-  88. 

t  Seepages  210,  211. 

\  See  page  210.     See,  also,  Part  III.  Class  xxtv.    Cryptogamia. 

i.  Elementa  Botanica;,  &c.     Pars  prior,  p.  35.  Hafnia:  •  1764. 

||  That  is,  in  each  pericarp.  **  Asperula  cdoraU. 


248  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

greater  number  of  the  Lip-flowers  of  Tournefort,  and  the 
Rough-leaved  plants  of  Ray.  5.  Some  have  many  seeds, 
as  Ranunculus,  Anemone,  Poppy,  Lobelia,  Ludvigia, 
Gerardia,  and  others. 

The  fertility  of  nature  in  the  production  of  seeds 
is  almost  incredible,  and  is  a  circumstance  well  calcu- 
lated to  display  the  unbounded  liberality  of  nature  and 
the  immense  quantity  of  life  that  may  spring  from  a  so- 
litary embryo.  A  single  stalk  of  Indian-Corn  (Zea  Mays) 
produced  in  one  summer  2000  seeds  :  in  the  same  pe- 
riod, a  plant  of  Elecampane  (Inula  Helenium)  produced 
3000  seeds:  the  Common  Sunflower  (Helianthus  annuus) 
4000  :  the  Poppy,  32.000.  A  single  spike  of  Cats-Tail 
(Typha)  produced  10,000  seeds,  and  upwards.  A  sin- 
gle capsule  of  the  Tobacco  was  found  to  contain  1000, 
and  one  of  the  White-Poppy  (Papaver  somniferum), 
8000,  seeds.  Each  capsule  of  the  Vanilla  contains  from 
10,000  to  15,000,  seed  !  Mr.  Ray  informs  us,  from 
actual  experiments  made  by  himself,  that  10 12  Tobacco- 
seeds  are  equal  in  weight  to  one  grain;  and  that  the 
weight  of  the  whole  quantity  of  seed  in  a  single  stalk 
of  Tobacco,  is  such,  that  the  number  of  seeds,  accord- 
ing to  the  above-mentioned  proportion,  must  be  560,000. 
The  samelearned  naturalistestimates  the  annual  produce 
of  a  single  stalk  of  Spleen- wort  ( Asplenium)  to  be  up- 
wards of  one  million  of  seed.  Dr.  Woodward  has  cal- 
culated, that  a  single  Thistle  seed  will  produce  at  the 
first  crop,  24,000  seed  ;  and,  consequently,  five  hundred 
and  seventy-six  millions  of  seeds,  at  the  second  crop!! 
Well  might  Virgil  say,  that  the  Thistle  becomes 
"  dreadful  in  the  corn-fields*". 

*  See  page  121.,  for  the  quotation  from  the  Georgics. 


ELEMENTS   OF   BOTANY.  249 

Our  admiration  cannot  but  be  excited  by  this  fer- 
tility. Yet  it  is  more  wonderful,  as  has  been  observed*, 
that  in  some  plants  such  a  prodigious  number  of  ovules 
can  be  fecundated  by  very  few  stamens  ;  and  that  in 
other  plants,  even  a  very  moderate  quantity  of  ovules 
cannot  be  fecundated  by  a  numerous  set  of  stamens-  It 
is  worth  observing,  in  this  place,  that  very  generally 
plants  which  are  distinguished  for  the  number  of  their 
seeds,  are  those  which  have  the  fewest  stamens,  or  an- 
thers. Thus  Vanilla  has  but  one  anther,  and  the  To- 
bacco  five  ;  whilst,  on  the  other  hand,  among  the  Poly- 
androus  plants  (most  of  which  have  many  stamens), 
there  are  not  a  few  vegetables,  which  are  scarcely 
equal  to  the  fecundation  of  a  single  ovulef .  These  facts 
must  lead  us  to  believe,  that  the  fecundation  of  seeds  is 
owing  more  to  the  quality  or  peculiar  virtue  of  the 
pollen,  than  to  the  mere  quantity  of  this  fecundating 
powder.  Thus,  I  have  found,  that  the  pericarp  of  the 
Crown-Imperial  (Fritillaria  imperialis)  swelled  as  com- 
pletely from  the  influence  of  only  one  anther,  as  from 
the  whole  number,  which  is  six,  of  those  male  organs 
of  generation,  in  this  vegetable.  These  facts  must, 
likewise,  show  us  (and  it  is  a  circumstance  fortunate  for 
mankind),  that  every  vegetable  ovule  is  not  destined  by 
nature,  to  give  rise  to  a  future  progeny.  The  same  re- 
mark, unquestionably,  applies  to  the  animal,  as  well 
as  to  the  vegetable,  world.  Millions  of  embryos  pre- 
exist, but  never  are  evolved  into  active  life- 

*  By  Gartner. 

f  It  mils',  however,  be  remembered,  that  the  Poppy  is,  at  once,  remarkable 
for  the  number  of  its  stamens  and  its  seed  ;  and  that  among  the  Or  chides,  many 
of  which  have  only  a  single  anther,  there  are  not  a  few  individuals,  which  very 
rarely  do  furnish  us  with  proline!;  seed. 

K  k 


250  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

As  the  number  of  the  seeds  is  so  extremely  varia- 
ble  in  vegetables,  it  must  be  evident,  that  genera  con- 
structed merely  from  this  quality  of  the  fructification, 
must  be  artificial  and  precarious.  Thus,  GlecRtsia  tria- 
canthos  (Honey-Locust)  has  a  legume  with  several  seed; 
whilst  another  species  (Gleditsia  monospermy.)  has  only 
a  single  seed  in  its  legume-  Many  other  instances,  of  a 
like  kind,  might  be  mentioned.  Nay,  even  in  the  same 
species,  the  number  of  the  seed  is  often  indefinite.  Thus, 
in  Persimmon  (Diospyros  virginiana),  we  find  the  fruit 
with  one  seed,  with  two,  three,  four,  five,  six,  seven, 
and  eight  seed-  It  must  be  confessed,  however,  that  in 
many  families  and  natural  genera  of  vegetables,  the 
number  of  the  seeds  is  pretty  constant  and  invariable. 

b.  In  regard  to  its  figure,  the  seed  is,  1.  subro- 
tundum,  roundish-  2.  overturn,  ovate.  3.  oblongum, 
oblong.  4.  scobiforme,  scobiform,  or  saw-dust-like ; 
resembling  saw-dust.  5-  jiliforme,  filiform.  6.  turbina- 
tum,  turbinate.  7-  clavaium,  club-shaped.  8.  angula- 
tion, angular.  9.  cylinclraceum,  cylindrical.  10.  trique- 
tru?n,  triquetrous.  11.  accrosum,  acerose.  12.  teres, 
columnar.  13.  cllipticum,  elliptical.  14.  lunulatum, 
crescent-shaped.  15.  cordatum,  cordate.  16.  reniforme, 
reniform.  17.  orbiculatum,  orbicular.  18.  globosum, 
globular.  19.  an I/a turn,  arilled  ;  furnished  with  an  aril*. 
20.  planum,  flat.  21.  bine  planum,  inde  rotundum,  'flat 
en  one*side,  and  round  on  the  other.  22.  bine  rotundum, 
inde  angulatum,  round  on  one  side,  angular  on  the  other. 
23.    compression,    compressed.     24.   gibbum,    gibbous. 

25.  angulii ;  wiemhrayaceis,    with  membranous    angles. 

26.  acuminatum,  acuminate.    27.  obtusum,  obtuse.     28. 

*  Sec  page  196,  &c. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  251 

rostratum,  rostrate.  29-  erectum,  erect.  30-  margini- 
bus  membranaceis,  with  membranous  margins.  31. 
emarginatum,  emarginate.  32.  caudatum,  tailed  ;  ter- 
minated by  a  naked  or  feathery  filament-  S3,  carina  turn, 
keeled.     34.  squamatum,  scaly. 

c.  Seeds,  it  is  hardly  necessary  to  observe,  vary  re- 
markably in  size.  It  may,  however,  be  remarked,  that 
Gaertner  has  established  four  heads  of  sizes  of  the  seed, 
viz.  1.  magnum,  large;  not  smaller  than  a  walnut,  or- 
which  exceeds  a  geometrical  inch  ;  whether  it  be  ex- 
tended in  thickness,  as  in  Lontarus  maldivica*  and 
Cocoa  nut  (Cocoa)  ;  or  in  length,  as  in  Rhizophora. 
2.  medium,  middle-sized  ;  between  an  inch  and  two 
linesf  ;  neither  larger  than  a  Hazel-nut  nor  smaller  than 
a  Millet-seed.  3.  parvum,  small ;  exceeding  half  a  line; 
but  not  greater  than  two  lines,  contained  within  the  li- 
mits of  the  seeds  of  Bell-flower  (Campanula),  or  a 
Poppy-  4.  minutnm,  s.  exile ;  minute ;  smaller  than 
the  preceding,  and  often  like  dust  or  powder,  as  in 
Chara,  in  the  Ferns,  in  the  Mosses,  &c- 

d.  In  regard  to  its  surface,  the  seed  is,  1.  glabrum, 
smooth  ;  having  no  conspicuous  inequalities  or  splendor 
on  its  surface  ;  as  in  Radish,  Cabbage,  and  others. 
2.  lavigatum,  polished,  smooth  and  shining ;  as  in 
Amaranthus,  Sapota,  &c.  3.  lucidum,  s.  splendens,  lucid 
or  shining ;  the  surface  shining,  but  not  perfectly 
smooth  ;  as  in  Corn-Gromwell  (Lithospermum  arvense), 
&c.     4.  striatum,  striated  ;    having  either  longitudinal 

*  The  pericarp  of  this  plant  (which  is  a  berry)  is  frequently  a  foot  and  a  half 
in  thickness. 

t  The  line  is  the  twelfth  part  of  an  inch. 


252  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

streaks,  as  in  Hemlock  and  other  Umbelliferae,  or 
transverse  or  oblique  streaks;  as  in  Exacum;  or  radiat- 
ed ones,  as  in  Tradescantia-  5.  sulcatum,  furrowed  ; 
marked  with  thick  streaks,  either  simple  or  branched  ; 
as  in  Fool's  Parsley,  (iEthusa  Cynapium),  Ipecacu- 
anha (Psychotria),  and  Pimpinella  agrimonoides*.  6. 
cancellatum,  latticed ;  having  the  longitudinal  streaks, 
or  furrows,  decussated  by  transverse  and  generally  nar- 
rower ones  ;  as  in  Glaucium,  Argemone,  Onopordum, 
&c-  7-  reiiculatum,  reticulated ;  differing  from  the 
former  in  the  irregularity  only  of  the  streaks ;  as  in 
Pennywort  (Hydrocotyle),  &c.  8.  scrobiculatum,  scro- 
biculate  ;  marked  with  rather  large  pits,  distant  or  con- 
tiguous ;  as  in  Euphorbia  Tithymalus.  9.  punctatum, 
dotted,  or  punctate  ;  either  excavate-punctate  fexca- 
vato-pu?ictatum  J, or  tieva.ie-'punctattfele'vato-punctatum  J, 
with  the  dots  disposed  in  series,  or  irregular.  Such 
seeds  are  common  in  the  Luridae,  and  other  natural 
families.  11.  apiculatum,  apiculate  ;  rough,  with  very 
short  and  frequently  capitate  bristles ;  as  in  Drosera. 
12.  tuberculatum,  tubercled  ;  rough  with  thicker  ele- 
vated dots,  or  tubercles ;  as  in  Hydrocarpum.  13. 
papillosum,  papillous  ;  covered  with  flexible  scales,  or 
fleshy  tubercles ;  as  in  Eryngo  (Eryngium),  and  in 
Codon.  14.  vermiculatum,  vermiculate  ;  marked  with 
elevated  serpentine  streaks,  or  a  species  of  foreign 
letters  ;  as  in  Balsam-apple  (Momordica),  &c.  15. 
marginatum,  marginate  ;  either  thickened  at  the  mar- 
gin ;  as  in  Cucurbita,  or  extenuated  at  the  margin 
| 

*  To  this  head  belong   the  following,  viz.  1.   costatum,  ribbed,  and,  2.  the 
malgndinaceutn,    molendinaceous,    or    mill-stone-like,    seed,    so   named  from   the ,'. 
thickness  or  breadth  of  the  dorsal  furrows  ;  as  in  Caucalis,  &c. 


« 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  253 

(marginaceo-extcmiatumj,  as  in  Allamanda.  16-  ru- 
gowm,  wrinkled  ;  rough  with  tubercles,  streaks,  and 
pits  irregularly  intermixed  ;  as  in  Aconitum,   &c. 

e.  In  regard  to  their  colour,  there  is  a  very  consi- 
derable variety  in  the  seeds  of  plants-  This  is  the  more 
remarkable,  because  the  seed  is  the  only  part  of  the 
vegetable  which,  without  having  received  the  free  ac- 
cess of  light,  is  decorated  with  fine  colours-  It  is, 
moreover,  to  be  observed,  that  the  colours  of  seeds 
are  such  as  rarely  occur  in  the  coloured  parts  of 
flowers,  but,  on  the  contrary,  the  most  generally  pre- 
vailing colours  of  the  flower  are  extremely  uncommon 
in  seeds. 

The  following  are  the  principal  colours  of  differ- 
ent seeds,  viz.  1.  meunum,  honey-coloured.  2.  rufe- 
scc7is,  reddish-  3-  heholum,  pale-red.  (These  three 
are  the  most  common  colours  of  seeds,  and  the  least 
common  in  flowers)-  4-  ocbraccum,  ochrey.  5.  fcrrugi- 
neum,  rusty.  6.  castancum,  chesnut-coloured.  (These, 
after  reddish,  arc  the  most  frequent  colours  of  seeds, 
and  are  hardly  ever  observed  in  flowers).  7.  nigrum, 
atrum  £s?  anthracimim,  black  and  different  varieties  of 
black.  These  are  colours  nearly  peculiar  to  seeds  ;  for 
we  have  no  instances  of  flowers  entirely  black,  though 
there  are  some  that  have  black  spots-  I  may  add,  that 
we  have  many  instances  of  black  or  blackish  pericarps  ; 
as  in  Podalyria  australis,  Cassia  marilandica,  and 
others.  8.  fuscum,  brown.  9-  testaceum,  tile-colour- 
ed- 10  spadiccum,  bay.  (These  are  common  in  the 
seeds  and  bark,  but  very  unusual  in  flowers).  11. 
album ,    white,      12-     /acteum,      milky.      13.    pfaeum, 


254  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

snowy«  (These  are  more  frequently  to  be  met  with  in 
flowers  than  in  matured  seeds  :  yet  seeds,  before  matu- 
rity, are,  very  generally,  white.  14-  rubrum,  cocci- 
neum,  &?  rut  Hum,  red,  scarlet  or  crimson,  and  fiery  : 
these  colours  are  very  common  in  flowers,  but  much 
rarer  in  seeds.  In  Gloriosa,  however,  in  Abrus  preca- 
torius,  and  in  others,  we  meet  with  fine  scarlet  and 
other  red  seeds.  15.  roseum,  rosy.  This  is  a  very 
frequent  colour  in  flowers,  but  very  rarely  observed  in 
seed.  In  Pomegranate,  however,  we  have  an  instance 
of  it.  16.  cceruleum,  blue.  Blue  seeds  are  extremely 
rare,  but  they  do  occur  in  Croton  cyanospermum,  and 
in  a  variety  of  Kidney-Bean  (Phaseolus  vulga- 
ris). 17.  subcoerulea,  or  somewhat  blue,  and  plumbeo- 
lhesce?itia,  lead-livid,  seeds  are  met  with  in  Zingiber, 
and  some  other  plants.  18.  viride,  green.  (Although 
green  is  so  predominant  a  colour  in  the  vegetable  world, 
it  is  extremely  uncommon  in  seeds-  In  some  plants, 
however,  as  in  Adonis  vernalis,  and  in  Yellow-Balsam, 
or  Touch-me-not  (Impatiens  noli  me  tangere*)  grass- 
green  seeds  do  occur.  Yellowish-green  flutesccnti- 
virldiaj  seeds  occur  in  different  species  of  Bird'sfoot- 
Trefoil  (Lotus),  and  others.  19.  variegatum,  varie- 
gated ;   as  in  Lathyrus,  Phaseolus,  &c. 

All  the  preceding  colours,  not  to  mention  others, 
are  assumed  by  seeds,  when  they  are  ripe.  Colour  is, 
therefore,  very  generally  considered  as  a  proof  *of  the 
maturity  of  seeds.  It  is  to  be  observed,  however,  that 
the  seeds  of  many  vegetables  remain  colourless,  during 
the  whole  term  of  their   life.     Moreover,  the   colour 

«  *  Balsamina  Noli  tangere  of  Gartner. 

»  • 

« 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  255 

frequently  varies  from  the  influence  of  culture,  and  by 
age  is  often  changed  from  a  paler  to  a  darker,  becom- 
ing, from  straw-coloured,  reddish ;  from  reddish, 
rust-coloured ;  and,  from  rust-coloured,  brown. 
"  Hence  (as  Gsertner  observes)  colour  can  neither  be 
"  taken  for  a  certain  sign  of  maturity,  nor  for  a  dis- 
"  tinctive  specifick  mark:  but  it  serves  to  distinguish  a 
"  seed  from  the  neighbouring  parts,  and  especially  from 
"  Pyrenes*".  Our  author  considers  that  coat  as  the 
proper  outermost  integument  of  the  seed,  which  is  dis- 
tinguished, by  its  peculiar  colour,  from  the  neighbour- 
ing coats. 

f.  In  regard  to  its  consistence,  the  seed  is,  1.  ex- 
succum,  juiceless.  2.  duriuscidum,  hardish.  3.  amygda- 
lino -car  no  sum,  almond-fleshy  ;  a  seed  retaining  the  im- 
pression of  the  nail.  4.  fungosum  s.  suberosum,  fun- 
gous, or  cork-like ;  a  seed  which  can  be  opened  by 
scratching.  5.  coriaceum,  coriaceous  ;  which  can  be  cut 
with  a  knife.  6.  crustaceum,  crustaceous;  which  can 
be  broken  by  the  fingers.  7.  nuc anient aceum  s.  osseum, 
nucamentaceous  or  bony,  which  can  hardly  be  broken 

in  pieces  between  the  teeth.    8.  baccatum,   berried. 

« 

g.  For  particular  information  concerning  the  situa- 
tion of  the  seed,  I  must  refer  the  reader  to  the  work  of 
Gaertner-  I  shall  only  observe,  that  the  situation  of 
these  parts  is  of  great  consequence  in  defining  the  limits 
of  the  genera  of  plants  ;  and  is  of  the  highest  import- 
ance in  a  philosophical  view  of  the  seed  ;  for  Gaertner 

*  Pyrenes,  according  to  Gasrtner,  are  nothing  but  partial  putamens,  or  the 
bony  coats  of  single  cells,  often  again  divided  into  partial  chambers,  entirely  se- 
parated from  the  neighbou/ing  ones  which  resemble  them.  But  for  more  minute 
information  concerning  these  parts  of  the  pericarp,  I  must  refer  the  curious  reader 
to  Gartner's  work,  Dc  Fruetibttt,  Scc.&c. 


256  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

has  shown,  that  the  situation  of  the  seed  is  the  most 
constant  of  all  its  extrinsic  qualities-  This  botanist 
determines  the  situation,  partly  from  the  figure,  partly 
from  the  insertion  of  the  seed,  and,  in  part,  from  the 
direction  of  the  radicle  of  the  embryo. 

As  Linnaeus  has  denominated  the  pericarpium,  the 
"  ovarium  fcecundatum",  or  fecundated  ovary,  so  he 
denominates  the  seed,  the  "  egg  of  plants*".  To 
these  analogical  terms,  there  can  be  no  particular  objec- 
tions. 

A  knowledge  of  the  pericarp  and  seed  is  of  the 
utmost  importance  in  the  study  of  botany  :  I  mean  in 
the  methodical  distribution  of  plants,  and  in  investigat- 
ing their  affinities  to  each  other.  In  a  philosophical 
and  physiological  point  of  view,  the  dignity  of  these 
parts  will  be  immediately  seen  and  acknowledged.  Y,c 
shall  afterwards  see,  that  Linnaeus  almost  always  attends 
to  these  parts  of  the  fructification  in  drawing  the  gene- 
rick  character  of  vegetables.  By  other  botanists,  the 
fruit  has  been  deemed  of  still  more  importance.  Thus, 
Rivinus  has  founded  the  orders  of  his  system  upon  the 
fruit.  The  great  Tournefort  has  done  the  same.  Ca- 
mclli  constructed  a  method  upo:»i  thecal ves  of  the  fruit : 
and  although  Linnaeus  has  declared,  that  in  determining 
the  genera  of  plants,  the  flower  ought  to  be  greatly 
preferred  to  the  fruit,  his  opinion  on  this  subjfect  has 
not  received  the  sanction  of  all  the  botanists  since  his 
time.  Thus,  Gaertner  is  of  opinion,  that  for  the  pur- 
pose I  have  mentioned,   the  two  parts  in  question  are 

*  See  Philosophia  Botanica,  &.c.  p.  92  \.  146.  "  Omne  vivum  ex  ovo  ;  per 
"  consequefis  etiam  vegetabilia  ;  quorum  Seniina  esse  Ova,  docet  eorum  Finis,  so- 
"  bclem  parent  ibus  conformem  producens".     Ibid.  p.  88.  \.  184.* 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  257 

nearly  equally  entitled  to  attention,  "  for  Nature  (he 
observes)  "  has  made  flowers  and  fruits  equal  in  dig- 
'■  nity".     This  is,  unquestionably,  the  case. 

Several  important  circumstances  in  the  history 
of  the  seed  are  necessarily  delayed  to  the  Second  Part 
of  this  work.  This,  however,  appears  to  be  the  most 
proper  place  to  speak  of  the  Dissemination,  Dis- 
persion, or  Migration  of  Seeds,  and  of  their 
Germination. 


A.  I.  Of  the  Migration  of  Seeds. 

Nature  has  employed  various  modes  for  effecting 
the  diffusion  of  the  seeds  of  vegetables  over  the  surface 
of  the  earth.  The  principal  of  these  modes  are  the  fol- 
lowing, viz. 

1.  Rivers,  and  other  running  waters.  The 
seeds  of  many  vegetables  are  carried  along  by  rivers, 
and  torrents,  and  the  ocean,  and  are  frequently  con- 
veyed to  the  distance  of  many  hundred,  or  thousand, 
miles  from  the  countries  in  which  they  were  originally 
placed.  In  this  manner,  many  of  the  plants  of  Ger- 
many are  conveyed  to  the  shores  of  the  sea  in  Sweden  ; 
various  plants  of  Spain  and  France  are  carried  to  the 
shores  of  Britain  ;  and  the  plants  of  Africa  and  Asia 
are  often  conveyed  to  the  shores  of  Italy-  Sir  Hans 
Sloane  has  given  an  account   of  four  kinds  of  fruits, 

LI 


258  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

which  are  frequently  thrown,  by  the  sea,  upon  the 
coasts  of  the  islands  of  the  northern  parts  of  Scotland. 
These  seeds,  or  fruits,  were  Mimosa  scandens ;  Horse- 
eye-bean  (Dolichospruriens),  Ash-coloured  Nickar-tree 
(Guilandina  Bonduc),  and  the  "  Fructus  orbicularis 
sulcis  nervisque  distinctus*"  of  Caspar  Bauhin.  All 
these  are  American  vegetables  f,  and  three  of  them 
were  known  by  Sloane  to  be  natives  of  Jamaica. 
These  and  several  other  kinds  of  seeds,  which  are, 
likewise,  found  abundantly  upon  the  coast  of  Norway, 
were  thought  by  our  author  to  have  been  brought  by 
currents,  through  the  Gulph  of  Florida,  into  the 
North-American  ocean.  Dr.  Tonning  has  mentioned 
several  other  seeds  which  are  annually  thrown  upon  the 
coasts  of  Norway  :  such  as  those  of  Cashew-nut  (Ana- 
cardium  occidentale),  Bottle-gourd  (Cucurbita  lagena- 
ria),  Dog- wood-tree  (Piscidia  Erythrina),  and  Cocoa- 
nut  (Cocos  butyracea).  These  are  often  in  so  recent  a 
state,  that  they  would,  unquestionably,  vegetate,  were 
the  climate  favourable  to  their  growth  and  existence. 
And,  doubtless,  they  are  frequently  carried  to  coun- 
tries in  which  they  do  vegetate  as  well  as  in  the  coun- 
tries where  they  were  originally  placed,  by  the  hand  of 
the  Creator. 

Dr.  Darwin  observes,  that  the  fact  of  the  emi- 
gration of  these  seed  is  "  truly  wonderful,  and  cannot  be 
"  accounted  for  but  by  the  existence  of  under  currents 
"  in  the  depths  of  the  ocean  ;  or  from  vortexes  of  water 
"  passing  from  one  country  to  another  through  caverns 

*  Strychnos  colubrina  ?  of  Linnaeus. 

t  They  are,  likewise,  natives  of  the  East-Indies. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  259 

"  of  the  earth".  It  does  not,  however,  I  think,  seem 
necessary  to  adopt  this  conjecture  of  the  English  poet ; 
but  I  can,  with  great  pleasure  refer  my  readers  to  his 
pretty  lines  on  the  voyage  of  Cassia  from  the  "  brine- 
u  less  tides"  of  Lake- Ontario,  to  the  coasts  of  Nor- 
way*. 

2.  Winds.  I  have  already  taken  notice  of  the 
dispersion  of  plants  by  means  of  the  winds f.  It  is 
hardly  necessary  to  say  any  thing  further  on  the  subject, 
in  this  place.  I  may  observe,  however,  that  the  vege-. 
tables  which  are  carried  by  the  wind,  are  either  winged 
as  in  Fir-tree  (Pinus  Abies),  in  Trumpet-flower, 
(Bignonia  radicans),  Tulip-tree  (Liriodendron  Tulipi- 
fera),  Arbor  vitas  (Thuya  occidentalis),  and  some  of 
the  Umbelliferae,  not  to  mention  many  others  :  or  they 
are  furnished  with  an  aigrette,  as  in  the  plants  formerly 
enumerated,  when  treating  of  this  parti  ;  or  they  are 
placed  within  a  winged  calyx,  or  pericarp  ;  as  in  Statice 
Armeria,  Ash,  Maple,  Elm,  Log- wood,  Woad  (Isatis); 
or,  lastly,  they  are  contained  within  a  swelled  calyx  or 
seed-vessel  ;  as  in  Ground-cherry  (Physalis  viscosa, 
&c),  Melilot  (Trifolium  Melilotus),  Bladder-nut  (Sta- 
phylea  trifolia^  Bladder-sena  (Colutea  arborescens), 
Heart-seed  (Cardiospermum),  and  many  others. — With 
respect  to  all  these  vegetables,  it  is  certain,  that,  owing 
to  the  peculiar  structure  of  their  pericarps  or  seeds,  they 
are  very  extensively  diffused  over  the  surface  of  the 
earth;  and  in  this  way,  there  can  be  no  doubt,  that 
we  are  to  explain  the  circumstance  of  many  of  these  ve- 

*  The  Loves  of  the  Plants.     Canro  iii.  1.  411  418. 
f  See  pages  242,  &c.  1  See  pages  239-241. 


26©  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

getables  being  found  in  remote  and  opposite  parts  of 
the  globe,  as  in  North- America  and  Asia.  Thus,  the 
Erigeron  canadense,  or  Canadian  Flea-bane,  which 
was  brought  to  Europe,  in  the  seventeenth  century,  has 
spread  over  a  great  part  of  that  continent ;  and  the 
Common-Dandelion  is  often  seen  growing  upon  the 
highest  towers  of  towns  and  cities.  This  last-mention- 
ed vegetable  is  not,  I  think,  a  native  of  North- Ame- 
rica, but  it  has  already  been  carried  to  very  distant  parts 
of  the  continent,  and,  in  a  few  years,  will  be  as  exten- 
sively diffused  as  any  of  our  vegetables. 

3.  Birds  and  other  animals  are  no  mean  agents  in 
the  dissemination  of  vegetables.  Birds,  in  particular, 
are  greatly  instrumental  in  this  business.  They  swallow 
the  seeds,  which  they  discharge  entire,  and  thus  scatter 
them,  with  their  excrements,  over  the  face  of  the  earth. 
In  this  manner,  the  seeds  of  Common-Misletoe,  and 
those  of  some  species  of  Loranthus,  are  deposited  in 
the  crevices  of  the  barks  of  vegetables,  where  they 
grow,  and  continue  to  receive  their  nourishment.  In 
the  United- States,  the  former  of  these  vegetables  is 
very  frequently  found  growing,  as  a  parasite,  to  the 
branches  of  the  Sour-Gum  (Nyssa  integrifolia),  the 
Apple-tree,  and  others.  Different  species  of  Turdus, 
or  Thrush,  are  especially  concerned  in  its  diffusion. 
Loranthus  americanus,  which  is  a  native  of  the  West- 
Indies,  is  deposited  upon  the  branches  of  the  most 
lofty  trees,  particularly  Coccoloba  grandifolia  ;  where  it 
is  most  firmly  fixed,  and,  unquestionably,  receives  its 
nourishment  from  the  supporting  vegetable*.       Rum- 

•  Professor  N.  J.  Jacqiiin. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  261 

phius  assures  us,  that  a  particular  species  of  Pigeon  is 
very  instrumental  in  disseminating  the  true  Nutmeg 
in  the  East-India  islands.  It  is  in  this  way,  that 
the  Poke  (Phytolacca  decandra),  the  berries  of 
which  are  eaten  by  the  Robin  (Turdus  migratorius), 
the  Thrush  (Turdus  rufus),  the  Wild-Pigeon  (Co- 
lumba  migratoria),  and  many  others,  appears  to  have 
been  so  extensively  diffused  through  North- America. 
The  Rev.  Mr.  Robinson,  in  his  Natural  History  of 
Westmoreland  and  Cumberland,  has  very  particularly 
mentioned  a  thick  grove  of  Oak-trees,  which  were 
known  to  have  sprung  from  the  acorns  that  had  been 
planted  by  a  great  number  of  crows,  about  twenty-five 
years  before.  Of  the  North- American  birds,  that  are 
known  to  us,  no  one,  I  believe,  is  more  instrumental 
in  planting  groves  of  Oaks,  and  other  trees,  than  the 
Crested- Crow,  or  Jay-bird  (Corvus  cristatus),  which  is 
extremely  provident  in  laying  up  great  stores  of  acorns, 
and  other  seeds,  in  the  holes  of  fence-posts,  and  other 
similar  places.  There  seems  to  be  little  doubt,  that 
the  very  regular  growth  of  many  of  our  forest-trees 
along  the  courses  of  fences,  is  to  be  ascribed,  in  part, 
to  the  agency  of  this  and  other  species  of  birds,  as 
well  as  some  species  of  quadrupeds. 

Besides  the  birds,  many  other  animals  have  been 
greatly  instrumental  in  the  dispersion  of  the  seeds  of  ve- 
getables. Squirrels,  Rats,  and  other  animals,  suffer 
many  of  the  seeds  which  they  have  devoured  to  escape, 
and  thus  disseminate  them.  Our  Indians  are  of  opi- 
nion, that  the  squirrels  plant  all  the  timber  of  the 
country.  This  I  do  not  suppose  ;  but  it  is  certain, 
that  they  contribute  not  a  little  to  this  end,   by  deposit- 


262  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

ing  in  the  earth,  for  food,  store-houses  of  various  kinds 
of  nuts  and  seeds,  such  as  those  of  the  Chesnut,  Oaks 
of  different  kinds,  Walnuts  and  Hickery-nuts,  the 
seeds  of  the  Common  Dogwood  (Cornus  fiorida),  and 
many  others.  Immense  numbers  of  these  seeds,  even 
though  there  were  not  a  great  destruction  of  the  squir- 
rels, would  vegetate,  and  grow  to  a  good  size-  But 
as  there  is  annually  a  prodigious  destruction  of  these 
quadrupeds,  whole  forests  cannot  but  spring  from  the 
stores  which  they  have  laid  up.  It  has,  indeed,  been 
asserted*,  that  the  Striped  Dormouse,  or  Ground- Squir- 
rel (Sciurus  striatus),  previously  to  depositing,  in  the 
earth,  its  winter  food,  takes  the  precaution  of  depriving 
iC  each  kernel  of  its  germe,  that  it  may  not  sprout". 
Were  this  assertion  founded  in  truth,  it  would  consti- 
tute one  of  the  most  interesting  facts  in  the  history  of 
animal  instinct,  or  reason.  But,  although  the  little 
quadruped  of  which  I  am  speaking,  may,  on  many  oc- 
casions, deprive  the  kernel  of  its  germ,  or  embryo 
(not,  I  presume,  to  prevent  its  growth,  but  because  the 
embryo,  in  almost  all  seeds,  has  a  very  delicate  and 
agreeable  taste),  it  is  certain,  that,  in  the  greater  num- 
ber of  instances,  no  such  mutilation  of  the  seed  is  ac- 
complished, and  that,  therefore,  innumerable  seeds,  that 
have  been  planted  by  animals,  may,  and  actually  do, 
grow  into  trees,  and  other  vegetables. 

Animals  contribute  to  the  dispersion  of  seeds  in 
still  another  way.  The  seeds  of  many  plants  attach 
themselves  to  animals,  especially  quadrupeds,  by  means 
of  hooks,  crotchets,  or  hairs,  which  are  either  affixed 

#  By  my  very  respectable  friend,  the  late  Dr.  Jeremy  Belknap,  of  Boston. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  263 

to  the  seeds  themselves  ;  as  in  Hounds-tongue  (Cyno- 
glossum),  Mouse-ear  (Myosotis),  Vervain,  Water- 
Hemp- Ag-rimony  (Bidens-,  and  many  others  ;  to  their 
calyx,  as  in  Burdock  (Arctium  Lappa),  Agrimony, 
Rhexia,  Dock  (Rumex),  Nettle,  Pelletory  (Parieta- 
ria),  Linnaea,  &c-  &c.  ;  or  to  the  pericarp,  or  seed- 
vessel,  as  in  Liquorice  (Glycyrrhiza),  Enchanter's  Night- 
shade (Circasa),  Cleavers  (Galium  Aparine),  Trium- 
fetta  Bartramia,  Martynia,  Pea- Vines  (Hedysara,  of 
various  species),  not  to  mention  many  others. — In  this 
manner,  there  can  be  no  doubt,  that  many  seeds  are 
very  extensively  diffused  over  vast  tracts  of  country. 
Thus,  there  are  good  reasons  to  believe,  that  neither 
Common  Hounds-tongue  (Cynoglossum  officinale),  nor 
Burdock,  are  natives  of  the  United-States  :  but  both  of 
these  plants,  which  appear  to  have  spread  in  the  manner  I 
have  mentioned,  are  now  to  be  seen  in  many  of  the 
most  remote  parts  of  the  Union. 

The  very  incorruptible  nature  of, the  seeds  of 
plants,  is  a  circumstance  highly  favourable  to  their  mi- 
gration*. We  have  seen,  that  the  seeds  of  Misletoe, 
Loranthus,  Poke,  and  others,  vegetate  very  well,  after 
they  have  been  subjected  to  the  digestive  power  of  birds. 
Nay,  it  is  a  fact,  that  some  seeds,  when  carried  to  a  dis- 
tance from  their  native  countries,  have  generally  refused 
to  vegetate,  until  they  have  been  passed  through  the  ali- 
mentary canal  of  birds.  In  Britain,  this  was  found  to 
be  the  case  with  the  seeds  of  the  Common  Magnolia,  or 
Beaver-tree  (Magnolia  glauca).  This  fact  will  excite 
less  surprize,  when  it  is  recollected,  how  extremely  te- 

*  J-  J-   Plenck.   Physiologia  et   Pathologia   Plantarum,   p.   92.     Viennae : 
1794.  8vo. 


264  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

nacious  seeds  are  of  the  vital  principle  ;  or,  in  other 
words,  how  difficult  it  is  to  prevent  seeds  from  living. 
Thus,  the  late  illustrious  Spallanzani  discovered,  that 
there  are  certain  kinds  of  seeds,  which  do  not  refuse  to 
vegetate,  even  after  having  undergone  the  operation  of 
boiling  in  water ;  and  Duhamel  mentions  an  instance 
of  seeds  germinating  after  they  had  experienced,  in  a 
stove,  a  heat  of  235  degrees  by  the  scale  of  Farenheit. 
Spallanzani  even  found,  that  the  seed  of  mould,  which 
is  a  true  vegetable,  survive  a  heat  infinitely  greater  than 
this.  We  are,  morever,  well  assured,  that  the  seeds  of 
certain  species  of  plants,  after  having  been  preserved  in 
the  cabinets  of  the  curious,  for  whole  centuries,  have 
vegetated  very  readily,  when  committed  to  the  earth, 
or  when  simply  irrigated  with  water. 

4.  Many  seeds  are  dispersed  to  a  considerable* 
distance  by  means  of  an  elastic  force,  which  resides  in 
some  part  of  the  fructification.  In  the  Oat,  and  in  the 
greater  number  of  the  Ferns,  this  elasticity  is  resident 
in  the  calyx.  In  Centaurea  Crupina,  it  resides  in  the 
pappus,  or  aigrette ;  whilst,  in  many  others,  such  as 
Geranium,  Herb-Bennet  (Geum  urbanum),  Fraxinella 
(Dictamnus  albus),  Touch-me-not  (Impatiens),  Cu- 
cumber (Cucumis),  Wild-Cucumber  (Momordica), 
Horse-tail  (Equisetum),  and  many  others,  it  resides  in 
the  capsule.  The  pericarp  of  Impatiens  consists  of  one 
cell  with  five  divisions,  each  of  which,  when  the  seed 
are  ripe,  upon  being  touched,  suddenly  folds  itself  into 
a  spiral  form,  leaps  from  the  stem,  and  scatters,  by 
virtue  of  this  elastic  property,  its  seed  to  a  great  distance. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  265 

Dr.  Darwin  has  mentioned  this   phenomenon,  in  his 
learned  and  charming  poem,    The  Loves  of  the  Plants : 

"  With  fierce  distracted  eye  Impatiens  stands, 
"  Swells  her  pale  cheeks,  and  brandishes  her  hands, 
"  With  rage  and  hate  the  astonish 'd  groves  alarms, 
"  And  hurls  her  infants  from  her  frantic  arms". 

Canto  hi.  1.  131-134. 

The  pericarp  of  the  Geranium,  and  the  beard  of 
the  Wild-Oat  (Avena  fatua),  are  twisted,  doubtless, 
for  a  similar  purpose,  and,  being  extremely  sensible  to 
the  changes  of  the  atmosphere,  readily  dislodge  their 
seeds  on  wet  days,  when  the  earth  is  best  fitted  to  re- 
ceive them.  Advantage  has  been  taken  of  this  property 
of  the  pericarp  of  the  Geranium,  of  which  an  inge- 
nious and  neat  hygrometer  has  been  constructed*. 
The  Wild-Oat,  called  "  Walking-Oat",  is  now  fami- 
liarly known  to  every  body.  The  awn  (arista)  of  the 
Barley  is  furnished  with  stiff  points,  which  are  all 
turned  towards  the  point  of  it,  like  the  teeth  of  a  saw. 
As  this  long  awn  lies  upon  the  ground,  it  extends  itself, 
during  the  prevalence  of  the  moist  night-air,  and  pushes 
forwards  the  grain  of  Barley  which  it  adheres  to.  In 
the  day-time,  it  shortens  as  it  dries,  "  and  as  these 
"  points  prevent  it  from  receding,  it  draws  up  its  pointed 
"  end  ;  and  thus,  creeping  like  a  worm,  will  travel  many 
feet  from  the  parent  stemf".  Surely,  these  facts  may, 
with  some  propriety,  be  mentioned  as  instances  of  the 
migration  of  the  seeds  of  plants. 

*  Sec  Dr.  Wiihering's  Botanical  Arrangement,  8cc.  Vol.  III.  p.597  Jc  593. 
f   Daryrin. 

M  m 


266  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

I  proceed,  in  the  next  place,  to  treat 

B.   II.  Of  the  Germination  of  the  Seed. 

The  seed,  after  having  been  impregnated  by  the 
animating  pollen,   or   fecundating  powder,  of  the  an- 
thers*,   is,  at  no  great  distance  of  time,   in  a  fit  state 
to  germinate.     Some  seeds,   indeed,   begin  to  vegetate 
long  before  they  are  detached  from  the  pericarp,  or  vege- 
table womb,  in  which  they  have  received  their  exist- 
ence, and  passed  through  some  of  the  tranquil  stages 
of  their  life.     This  is  the  case  with  the  Tangekolli  and 
Agave,  formerly  mentioned  f.     Mr.   Baker  assures  us 
that  upon  dissecting  a  seed  of  Trembling-grass  (Briza) 
he  plainly  discovered,  by  the  assistance  of  the  micro- 
scope,  a  perfect  plant  furnished  with   roots,   sending 
forth  two  branches,  from  each  of  which  there  proceeded 
several  leaves,  or  blades,  of  grass  J.    In  the  Persimmon, 
the  germination  of  the  seed  commences  long  before  the 
fall  of  the  fruit,  and  even  before  the  fleshy  part  of  it  is 
quite  matured  :  for  in  the  unripe  fruit  we  plainly  discern, 
even  with  the  naked  eye,  the  two  beautiful  leaves  of  the 
embryo,  that  are  afterwards  to  form  the  upper  part  of 
the  tree§.    "  So  in  the  animal  kingdom  (as  Dr.  Darwin 
observes),   "  the  young  of  some  birds  are  much  more 
"  mature  at   their  birth  than   those  of  others.     The 
"  chickens  of  pheasants,  quails,  and  partridges,  can  use 

*  Sec  pages  165,  166,  See. ;  and  Part  II.  t  See  page  94. 

\  In  the  seeds  of  the  Nymphaea  Nelumbo,  and  in  those  of  the  Tulip-tree, 
the  embryo-leaflets  are  so  similar  to  those  of  the  adult  vegetables,  that  Linnaeus, 
merely  from  an  examination  of  these  leaflets,  was  enabled  to  discover  to  what 
vegetables  the  seeds  belonged.  See  Amoenitates  Academicae,  Sic.  Vol.  VI. 
Dissertatiocxx. 

^  See  Plate  v. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  267 

"  their  eyes,  run  after  their  mothers,  and  peck  their 
"  food,  almost  as  soon  as  they  leave  the  shell ;  but  those 
"  of  the  linnet,  thrush,  and  blackbird,  continue  many 
"  days  totally  blind,  and  can  only  open  their  callow 
"  mouths  for  the  offered  morsel*". 

In  the  greater  number  of  vegetables,  however, 
there  is  no  germination  of  the  seed,  exterior  to  its  shell, 
until  after  the  opening  of  the  pericarp,  and  the  fall  of 
the  seed.  The  germination  is  then  accomplished  by 
different  circumstances,  which  are  more  or  less  neces- 
sary to  this  great  function  of  vegetable  life.  These  cir- 
cumstances are  Earth,  Air,  Water,  and  Heat.  Of 
each  of  these,  and  of  some  other  supposed  agents  in  the 
business  of  germination,  I  shall  speak,  in  a  very  brief 
manner,  in  the  order  in  which  I  have  mentioned  them. 

1.  Although  earth  is  not  essentially  necessary  to 
the  germination  of  the  seed,  it  is  extremely  useful, 
affording  a  proper  situation,  a  maternal  bosom,  for  this 
vegetable  egg,  where  it  can  repose,  fix  itself,  and  re- 
ceive the  influence  of  the  various  agents,  which  are 
more  indispensibly  necessary  to  the  evolution  of  its 
parts-  I  do  not  deny,  that  earths  of  certain  kinds,  may 
be  actually  absorbed  by,  and  serve  as  aliment  to, 
the  growing  seeds  of  vegetables.  I  even  think  it  pro- 
bable that  this  is  the  case.  But  this  is  one  of  those 
points,  in  vegetable  physiology,  which  has  not  yet  been 
satisfactorily  decided  by  experiments. 

Innumerable  facts,  however,  might  be  adduced 
to  show,  that  earth  is  not  absolutely  necessary  to  the 

*  Phytologia,  &c.  Sect.  ix. 


268  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

germination  of  seeds.  We  have  seen,  that  the  seeds  of 
various  parasitic  plants  vegetate  very  well  in  the  chinks 
of  the  bark  of  other  vegetables.  Some  seeds  vegetate 
upon  the  most  barren  rocks,  where  they  can  hardly  be 
said  to  have  a  particle  of  earth.  But,  what  is  more  to 
our  purpose,  the  seeds  of  many  plants  vegetate  in  the 
water,  and  continue,  during  the  whole  course  of  their 
lives,  very  completely  detached  from  the  earth*.  More- 
over, seeds  of  various  kinds  germinate  very  readily  and 
rapidly,  upon  cotton,  wool,  feathers,  sponges,  cut 
paper,  and  other  similar  matters,  provided  they  be  kept 
constantly  moistened,  with  water,  and  exposed  to  the 
proper  quantity  and  species  of  air. 

Seeds  never  vegetate  in  a  very  dry  earth.  The 
greater  number  of  them  will  vegetate  in  any  kind  of 
earth,  provided  it  be  moist.  Even  in  moist  earth,  when 
they  are  buried  at  a  great  distance  below  the  surface, 
they  remain  in  a  profound  sleep,  and  make  no  visible 
effort  to  vegetate,  until  they  are  brought  much  nearer  to 
the  surface.  They  are  always  later  in  coming  up,  in 
proportion  as  they  are  planted  deep  in  the  ground.  Bi- 
erkander,  a  Swedish  writer,  has  instituted  some  curious 
experiments  relative  to  the  germination  of  seeds,  of  va- 
rious kinds,  at  different  depths  under  ground.  He 
found,  that  the  seeds  of  Flax  would  never  germinate 
when  they  had  been  buried  lower  than  a  certain  depth, 
in  the  earth.  He,  also,  found,  that  the  seeds  of  this 
plant  would  not  vegetate  in  sand . 

*  See  page  19.     See,  also,  Part  III.     Class  x.xiv.     Cryptocamia, 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  2G9 

2.  The  vast  influence  of  air  upon  the  vegetation 
of  the  seed  might  be  shown  by  many  facts.  Seeds  do 
not  vegetate  in  vacuo,  or,  if  they  do  vegetate,  their 
growth  is  precarious  and  feeble.  The  celebrated  che- 
mist William  Homberg,  towards  the  close  of  the  xvnth 
century,  made  a  number  of  experiments  with  different 
seeds  placed  under  the  receiver  of  the  air-pump.  He 
observed,  that  the  seeds  of  Lettuce,  Purslane,  and 
Cresses,  do  sometimes  come  up  in  vacuo,  but  that  the 
number  of  them  is  small,  and  that  the  leaflets  that  made 
their  appearance,  perished  soon  after.  Boyle,  Mus- 
schenbroek,  and  Boerhaave  concluded,  from  their  ex- 
periments, that  the  access  of  air  is  indispensibly  neces- 
sary to  the  germination  of  the  seed.  Pease,  however, 
are  said  to  grow  in  vacuo« 

It  is,  no  doubt,  owing  to  the  want  of  air,  that  seeds 
which  are  planted  very  deeply  in  the  ground,  refuse  to 
germinate.  But  they  vegetate  very  readily  when  the 
ground  has  been  ploughed  or  turned  up,  and  the  seeds, 
in  this  way,  are  more  immediately  exposed  to  the  con- 
tact of  the  atmosphere.  The  seeds  of  Black-Oats,  after 
having  lain  deeply  buried  in  the  soil  of  Scotland,  for 
half  a  century,  have  grown  vigorously  as  soon  as  they 
were  raised  near  enough  to  the  surface  to  receive  the  in- 
fluence of  the  air.  It  is  well  known,  that  manv  seeds  do 
not  readily  germinate,  if  soon  after  the}-  have  been 
planted,  rains  have  fallen.  In  this  case,  a  kind  of  crust 
is  frequently  formed  upon  the  earth,  which  prevents  the 
access  of  air- 

Different  seeds  seem  to  require  very  different 
quantities  of  air,   in  order  to  further  their  germination. 


270  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

On  this  subject,  indeed,  our  knowledge  is  not  very  pre- 
cise. The  acorns  of  some  species  of  North- American 
Oaks  vegetate  much  quicker  when  merely  laid  upon  the 
surface  of  the  earth  than  when  buried  at  some  depth  be- 
low- The  seeds  of  the  Long-leaved  Pine  (Pinus  pa- 
lustris)  vegetate  very  readily  upon  the  surface  of  the 
naked  sand,  without  the  least  covering  of  earth  ;  and  the 
nuts  of  different  American  species  of  iEsculus,  orHorse- 
Chesnut,  such  as  the  Buck-eye  (iEsculus  flava),  grow 
as  well,  if  not  better,  upon,  than  beneath,  the  surface 
of  their  most  proper  soils. 

In  order  that  seeds  may  readily  germinate,  it  is 
not  only  necessary,  that  they  be  exposed  to  the  influ- 
ence of  the  air,  but  that  the  air  be  pure,  or,  at  least,  as 
pure  as  that  of  the  atmosphere.  The  experiments  of 
Mr.  Achard  and  many  other  philosophers  have  plainly 
proved,  that  these  vegetable  ova  will  not  germinate  in 
azotic  gas  (or  phlogisticated  air),  in  carbonic  acid-gas 
(fixed  air),  nor  in  hydrogen  gas  (inflammable  air).  The 
Abbe  Spallanzani,  however,  has  shown,  that  the  seeds 
of  various  species  of  plants  do  vegetate  very  well  in  con- 
fined or  stagnant  air,  provided  there  be  a  plenty  of  this 
air*.  The  same  remark  applies  to  the  eggs  of  many 
species  of  insects,  and  other  animals,  notwithstanding 
the  assertions  of  the  great  Boerhaave,  and  other  writers, 
to  the  contrary. 

Unquestionably,   however,  pure  air  is  peculi- 
arly favourable  to  the  germination  of  the  seed.     Thus, 

*  Experiments  and  Observations  upon  animals  and  vegetables  confined  in 
stagnant  air.     English  Translation. 


ELEMENTS   OF  BOTANY.  271 

Huber,  who  has  devoted  much  attention  to  this  inte- 
resting subject,  has  shown,  that  seeds  which  had  refus- 
ed to  vegetate  in  azotic  gas,  did  vegetate  when  to  this 
gas  he  added  a  small  portion  of  oxygen  gas*.  He  has  like- 
wise shown,  that  the  first  developement  of  seeds  is  more 
rapid  in  this  gas  than  in  the  common  air.  It  would,  in- 
deed, seem  that  it  is  oxygen  gas  alone  that  gives  to 
seeds  their  first  determination  to  germinate  ;  just  as  the 
same  gas  seems  to  be  the  first  exciting  cause  of  the  move- 
ments of  the  irritable  fibre  of  the  embryo-chick,  in  coof* 
It  is  not  improbable,  that  many  of  the  seeds  of  the  plains 
and  vallies,  when  carried  to  the  summits  of  high  moun- 
tains, refuse  to  vegetate  there,  in  some  measure,  from 
the  circumstance  of  their  having  in  the  elevated  regions 
of  the  atmosphere,  a  smaller  quantity  of  oxygen  gas 
than  in  the  climate  below. 

The  very  ingenious  F.  A.Humboldt  has  shown,  that 
Pease  and  French  Beans  that  had  been  sowed  in  sand, 
and  watered  with  water  to  which  was  added  oxygenated 
muriatic  acid,  grew  much  more  quickly  than  those 
which  were  irrigated  with  water  alone.  The  same 
seeds  perished  when  they  were  watered  with  water  to 
which  was  added  the  simple  muriatic  acid  :  which  plain- 
ly proved,  that  it  was  the  oxygen  of  the  acid,  and  not 
the  acid  itself,  which  had  so  greatly  disposed  the 
seeds  to  germinate.  When  the  seeds  of  the  Garden- 
cress  (Lepidium  sativum)  were  watered  with  the  diluted 
oxygenated  muriatic  acid,  they  exhibited  their  leaflets 

*  According  to  the  modern  chemists,  the  atmosphere  of  our  globe  is  com- 
posed of  azotic  gas  and  oxygen  gas,  in  the  proportion  of  about  seventy-three 
parts  of  the  former  and  twenty-seven  parts  of  the  latter.  The  carbonic  acid 
gas  (or  fixed  air),  is  deemed  an  accidental  part  of  the  atmosphere. 

f  See  page  58. 


272  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

at  the  end  of  six  hours  :  but  the  same  seeds  were  only 
thus  far  advanced  in  germination,  at  the  expiration  of 
thirty-six  hours,  when  they  had  been  watered  with 
common  water.  At  Vienna,  where  Professor  Jacquin 
and  others  have  paid  much  attention  to  this  curious  and 
really  important  subject,  it  was  found,  that  certain  old 
seeds,  which  had  always  refused  to  vegetate,  were 
brought  to  vegetate  by  irrigating  the  earth  in  which  they 
were  planted,  with  water,  to  which  was  added  the 
oxygenated  muriatic  acid.  This  was  found  to  be  par- 
ticularly the  case  with  the  seeds  of  Dodonaea  angusti- 
folia,  and  Mimosa  scandens. 

Mr.  Humboldt  has,  also,  shown,  that  seeds 
which  were  planted  in  the  calces  of  metals  (which 
are  all  compound  bodies  consisting  of  the  regu- 
line  matter,  or  metal,  and  oxygen),  such  as  the  oxy- 
des  of  lead,  called  red-lead,  and  lytharge,  if  they  be 
irrigated  with  water,  will  more  readily  vegetate  than 
when  committed  to  the  earth  ;  and  that  they  will  not  ve- 
getate when  planted  in  the  powder  of  the  same  metals, 
not  in  the  state  of  oxydes. 

These  various  facts,  the  discovery  of  which  may 
be  said  to  constitute  an  important  era  in  the  science  of 
Vegetable  Physiology,  prove,  in  the  most  satisfac- 
tory manner,  that  oxygen  gas,  or  vital  air,  is  absolutely 
necessary  to  the  complete  developement  of  the  embryo 
of  the  seed.  It  is  proper,  however,  to  observe,  that 
the  purest  oxygen  gas,  and  even  common  air  entirely 
freed  from  its  carbonic  acid,  are  less  proper  for  the 
germination  of  the  seed,  than  oxygen  gas  to  which  is 
added  a  portion  of  azotic  gas  ;  or  than  the  atmospheric 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  273 

air  in  union  with  a  pittance  of  carbonic  acid  gas.  It, 
moreover,  appears,  that  common  atmospheric  air  is  bet- 
ter adapted  to  the  germination  of  the  seed,  but  particu- 
larly to  the  progress  of  the  plant,  after  it  has  acquired 
more  size  and  strength,  than  is  oxygen  gas.  These 
facts  are  calculated  to  show  the  great  affinity  of  animal 
and  vegetable  life  :  nor  are  they  without  their  value  in 
a  practical  point  of  view. 

It  is  highly  probable,  that  the  seed,  as  well  as  the 
more  adult  plant,  is  capable  of  decomposing  the  carbo- 
nic acid,  that  may  be  offered  to  it,  detaching  the  oxygen 
of  this  acid  from  its  radical  or  base,  which  is  carbon*. 

As  air  is  so  indispensible  an  agent  in  forwarding 
the  germination  of  the  seed,  it  must  be  obvious,  that 
where  we  wish  to  prevent  seeds  from  vegetating,  we 
should  carefully  seclude  them  from  the  air,  especially 
a  warm  and  moist  air  f,  by  covering  them,  and  keeping 
them  in  a  cold  and  dry  place.     In  this  manner,  they 

*  Chaptal  and  some  other  chemists  have  asserted,  that  plants  live  in  azotic 
gas,  "  and  freely  vegetate  in  it".  My  colleague  Dr.  James  Woodhouse  informs 
me,  that,  in  a  solitary  instance,  a  single  seed  of  Water-Melon  had  germinated 
very  well  in  this  gas.  We  are  certain,  however,  that  almost  universally  the  gas 
in  question  is  highly  unfavourable  to  the  germination  of  the  seed,  and  to  its  fu- 
ture progressive  growth. 

f  Some  seeds,  we  are  told,  keep  best  when  they  are  exposed  to  the  air, 
whilst  others  have  their  determination  to  germinate  preserved  by  a  total  exclu- 
sion from  the  air.  Mr.  Miller  informs  us,  that  the  seeds  of  Paisley,  Onion, 
Lettuce,  and  other  vegetables,  that  were  kept  in  vials  hermetically  sealed,  for  a 
whole  year,  did  not  germinate,  while  those  of  the  same  age,  hung  up,  in  bags,  in 
a  dry  room,  vegetated  freely.  For  much  valuable  information  concerning  the  best 
method  of  preserving  seeds,  I  must  refer  the  reader  to  Mr.  Ellis's  Directions  for 
bringing  over  Plants  and  Seeds,  iS"c.  See,  also,  Mr.  Curtis's  Companion  to  tie 
Botanical  Magazine,  &c.  pages  27-33. 

N  n 


274  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

may  be  preserved  for  ages.  There  can  be  no  doubt, 
moreover,  that  the  seed  will  be  preserved  for  a  much 
longer  time  in  an  air  less  pure  than  in  one  more  pure. 
Accordingly,  it  is  the  practice  of  many  who  keep  seeds 
for  curiosity,  to  put  them  in  glass  vessels,  with  a  little 
sulphur,  or  camphor,  and  well  corked.  From  what 
will  presently  be  observed,  it  would  appear  probable, 
that  the  preservation  of  seed  will  be  still  further  effected 
by  keeping  them  more  in  the  light,  than  in  dark  situa- 
tions. 

3.  Water  is  another  of  the  indispensible  agents 
in  forwarding  the  vegetation  of  the  seed.  No  seeds 
will  germinate  if  they  be  placed  in  a  situation  where 
the  air  is  perfectly  dry.  Hence  seeds  which  are  kept 
perfectly  dry  in  the  cabinets  of  the  curious,  and  in  si- 
milar situations,  never  vegetate,  but  the  same  seeds 
begin  to  sprout  in  a  very  short  time,  when  they  are  ir- 
rigated with  water.  The  seeds  of  aquatic  plants  will 
not  vegetate  unless  in  water,  or  in  a  very  moist  soil. 
But  the  seeds  of  many  of  the  land-plants  perish  if  they 
be  kept  too  moist.  Each  seems  to  require  a  certain  de- 
terminate quantity  of  water  to  further  its  germination. 
In  general,  those  seeds  which  have  a  loose  testa,  or 
shell,  require  more  water  for  their  germination  than 
those  whose  shell  is  more  close. 

4.  A  cert  a  in  degree  of  heat  is  indispensibly  ne- 
cessary to  the  germination  of  the  seed.  During  the  se- 
vere weather  of  the  winter-season,  the  seeds  which 
have  been  placed  in  the  earth  do  not  germinate,  but  re- 
main inactive  in  a  state  perhaps  very  similar  to  the  tor- 
pid condition  of  many  animals  ;  but  on  the  coming  on 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  275 

of   spring,   the  "  penetrative    sun"*-    rouses  the  em- 
bryo, from  its  slumber,  into  active  life. 

It  is  unnecessary  to  dwell  upon  this  subject,  for 
the  agency  of  heat,  in  the  business  of  germination,  is 
familiar  to  every  one.  I  shall  only  add,  that  from  the 
influence  of  heat  upon  the  seed,  we  learn,  that  the  period 
of  its  germination  is  not  a  determinate  law,  in  respect 
to  time.  The  same  seed  which,  in  an  ordinary  degree 
of  heat,  requires  six  hours  to  germinate,  may  be  brought 
to  this  state,  in  three  hours,  by  exposing  it  to  a  greater 
degree  of  heat.  In  this  respect,  as  well  as  many  others, 
there  is  a  great  affinity  between  the  seeds  of  plunts,  and 
the  eggs  of  birds.  This  observation  may,  I  believe,  be 
extended  to  the  eggs  of  some  of  the  amphibious  animals, 
such  as  the  serpents. 

5.  Although  the  influence  of  light  upon  plants 
that  have  made  their  appearance  above  the  earth  is  ex- 
tremely great,  and  indipensibly  necessary  to  the  healthy 
state  of  the  vegetable f  ;  it  is  certain,  from  actual  ex- 
periments, that  light  is  not  necessary  to  the  first  germi- 
nation of  the  seed.  Mr.  Fourcroy  and  other  writers 
have,  indeed,  asserted,  that  light  is  necessary  to  this 
function  of  the  vegetable  egg.  But  the  contrary  has 
been  shown  by  numerous  experiments,  as  those  of 
Curtis,  Ingen-housz,  and  other  writers.  Nay,  it  has 
been  ascertained,  that  seeds,  which  have  never  felt  the 
influence  of  the  solar  light  vegetate  more  quickly  than 
those  which  have  received  its  influence.  Many  plants, 
originating  from  seeds,  grow  and  come  to  perfection  in 
the  darkest  mines,  and  in  other  similar  situations. 

*  Thomson.  t  Sec  Part  **• 


276  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

Dr.  Ingen-Housz  and  Mr.  Senebier  have  both 
shown,  that  seeds  which  were  planted  in  the  dark  vege- 
tated sooner  than  those  which  were  planted  in  the  light. 
The  Abbe  Bertholon  has  opposed  this  idea.  This  res- 
pectable writer  supposed,  that  the  seeds  wrould  actually 
vegetate  quicker  in  the  light  than  in  darkness,  provided 
they  could,  in  both  instances,  be  exposed  to  the  same 
quantity  of  water.  To  determine  this  point  with  cer- 
tainty, Mr.  Senebier  made  the  following  experiment. 
He  placed  Peas,  Beans,  and  French-Beans  (Haricots), 
upon  sponges  which  were  equally  wetted,  and  enclosed 
them  in  vessels  of  a  given  size.  He  exposed  some  of 
them  to  the  light  of  the  sun,  and  by  them  others  in 
cases  of  tin  plates,  painted  of  a  deep  red  colour.  They 
were  all  exposed  to  the  same  degree  of  heat.  The 
water  which  might  evaporate  from  the  sponges  was  pre- 
vented from  escaping,  so  that,  upon  this  ground,  there 
could  be  no  source  of  deception.  The  germination  pro- 
ceeded much  more  rapidly  in  the  darkened  cases  than  in 
those  which  were  exposed  to  the  influence  of  the  light. 

The  very  different  effects  of  light  upon  the  seed 
and  upon  the  more  evolved  and  adult  vegetable,  is  one 
of  the  various  circumstances  which  seem  to  render  it 
highly  probable,  that  light  and  heat  are  fluids  essentially 
distinct  from  each  other*,  however  frequently  they  may 
be  combined  together. 

6.  Electricity  deserves  to  be  mentioned,  in  this 
place.  It  must  be  remarked,  however,  that  authors  are 
much  divided  in  opinion  concerning  the  real  effects  of 

*  See  the  fine  experiments  of  Dr.  Herschel,  and  other  writers.     See,  also, 
Darwin's  Phytologia,  8cc.  Sect.  xm. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  277 

this  fluid  upon  the  germination  of  the  seed.  Dr.  Dar- 
win observes,  that  "  the  influence  of  positive  or  vitreous 
"  electricity  in  forwarding  the  germination  of  plants  and 
"  their  growth  seems  to  be  pretty  well  established  *". 
Mr.  D'Ormey  is  said  to  have  found  various  seeds  to 
vegetate  sooner  and  to  grow  taller  when  they  were  put 
upon  his*insulated  table,  and  supplied  with  electricity. 
Mr.  Bilsborrow's  experiments,  which  are  recorded  by 
Dr.  Darwin,  seem  to  prove,  that  Mustard- seed  which 
were  subjected  to  positive  or  vitreous  electricity,  and  to 
negative  or  resinous  electricity,  vegetated  much  sooner 
than  seeds  which  were  not  electrised,  "  but  otherwise 
"  exposed  to  the  same  circumstances".  The  Abbe 
Bertholon,  whom  I  have  already  mentioned,  is  of  opi- 
nion, that  both  natural  and  artificial  electricity  encrease 
the  germination  of  the  seed,  and  the  future  growth  of 
the  plant.  Dr.  Ingen-housz,  from  his  experiments,  was 
obliged  to  deduce  a  very  opposite  conclusion  ;  and  Mr. 
Senebier,  in  a  very  late  publication,  concludes,  that  the 
influence  of  the  electrical  fluid  is,  "  at  least,  doubt- 
fulf. 

7.  There  are,  doubtless,  many  other  agents  which 
exert  an  effect  more  or  less  decided  on  the  germination 
of  the  seed.  It  is  probable,  that  most  of  the  various 
manures  which  increase  the  living  powers  of  the  more 
adult  plant,  exert  a  similar  effect  up  the  embryo  within 
its  shell.  But  the  very  different  effects  of  light  upon  the 
seed  and  upon  the  evolved  plant,  should  teach  us  the 
propriety' of  treating  this  subject  with  caution.     Mean- 

*  Phytologia,  Sec.  Sect.  xm. 

t  "  Je  ne  dirai  rien  de  1'  Electricite  puisque  son  influence  est  au  moins  don- 
teuse".     Physiologie  Vegetale,  &c.  Tom.  3.  p.  3CJ9. 


278  ELEMENTS  CF  BOTANY. 

while,  I  think  it  may  be  confidently  asserted,  that  various 
stimulants,  such  as  nitre  (nitrate  of  potash),  common 
salt  (muriate  of  soda),  green- vitriol  (sulphate  of  iron), 
blue-vitriol  (sulphate  of  copper),  gypsum  or  plaster  of 
Paris  (sulphate  of  lime),  charcoal,  and  many  others,  if 
they  be  applied  in  their  proper  dose,  exert  a  considerable 
effect  in  hastening  the  germination  of  the  seed. 

*  %  *  * 


The  time  at  which  different  species  of  seeds,  after 
having  been  committed  to  the  earth,  begin  to  vegetate, 
is  exceedingly  various.  Thus,  Millet  (Milium),  and 
Wheat,  vegetate  in  one  day ;  Kidney-Bean,  Mustard, 
and  Spinach  (Spinacia),  in  three  days ;  Lettuce  and 
Fennel  (AnethumFceniculum),  in  four  days ;  Cucum- 
ber, Gourd,  and  others,  in  five  days  ;  Beet  and  Rad- 
ish, in  six  days;  Barley  in  seven  days;  Orache  (Atri- 
plex),  in  eight  days ;  Cabbage,  in  ten  days ;  Beans 
(Faba),  from  fifteen  to  twenty  days  ;  Onion,  from  nine- 
teen to  twenty  days  ;  and  Parsley  (Apium  Petroseli- 
nuni),  from  forty  to  fifty  days. — Of  the  common 
garden-seeds,  I  believe  there  are  none  which  take  a 
shorter  time  to  vegetate  than  several  of  the  Tetradyna- 
mous  plants,  such  as  Mustard,  und  Turnip  ;  nor  any, 
I  think,  a  longer  time  than  Parsley.  The  long  torpidi- 
ty of  the  last-mentioned  seed  has  given  rise  to  a  vulgar 
proverb,  in  Britain,  "  that  Parsley-seed  goes  nine  times 
"  to  the  Devil,  before  it  comes  up". 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  279 

The  seeds  of  many  vegetables  take  a  whole  year 
to  vegetate.  Such  are  the  Peach,  the  Almond,  the 
Walnut,  the  Chesnut,  the  Peony  (Pseonia  officinalis), 
different  species  of  Canna,  or  Indian-Reed,  and  others. 
Other  seeds  require  two  years  before  they  vegetate  : 
such  are  the  Common  Dogwood  (Cornus  florida),  and 
other  species  of  the  genus  :  the  Common  Pappaw,  or 
Custard-apple  (Annona  triloba),  and  the  Filbert  (Co- 
rylus  avellana).  Some  seeds,  even  under  circumstances 
favourable  to  their  growth,  remain  a  much  longer  time 
in  the  earth  before  they  vegetate.  But,  with  respect  to 
these  seeds,  the  period  of  their  germination  may  be 
greatly  advanced  by  different  means,  which  are  familiar 
to  the  gardeners.  Thus,  several  of  the  hard-shelled 
seeds,  particularly  the  nuts,  which  require  one  or  more 
years  to  vegetate,  can  be  brought  to  vegetate  much 
earlier,  simply  by  rendering  their  shells  thinner,  by  a 
file,  or  other  similar  means.  The  seeds  of  the  Pappaw, 
which  I  have  already  mentioned,  may,  in  this  manner, 
be  brought  to  germinate  in  a  few  days.  Some  writers, 
however,  are  of  opinion,  that  this  method  of  treating 
the  harder  putamens  is  not  adviseable.  Mr.  Miller  ad- 
vises us  to  put  such  seeds  between  two  tiles,  with  a  suf- 
ficient quantity  of  earth,  and  to  place  them  in  a  fresh 
hot-bed,   that  they  may  open  spontaneously. 

It  is  uncertain  how  long  seeds  may  exist  without 
loosing  their  vegetative  property.  There  are  good  rea- 
sons, however,  to  believe,  that  the  life  of  certain  kinds 
of  seeds  may  be  protracted  far  beyond  that  of  any  other 
part  of  the  vegetable,  or  than  the  life  of  any  species  of 
animal.  It  is  true,  indeed,  that  the  Mosses  which  have 
been  kept  for  near  two  hundred  years,  in  herbaria  of 


280  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

the  botanists,  have  seemed  to  revive  by  the  simple  pro- 
cess of  irrigating  them  with  water*.  Perhaps,  the 
Wheel-animal  (Rotifer),  which,  in  this'  respect,  is 
nearly  allied  to  the  Mosses  and  to  seeds,  might  be  pre- 
served for  as  great  a  length  of  time  in  the  sand  of  tiles 
and  sewers  f,  where  it  is  not  permitted  to  receive  the  in- 
fluence of  moisture.  But,  with  respect  to  seeds,  it  is 
certain,  that  when  excluded  from  the  influence  of  the 
air,  and  kept  from  moisture,  they  may  exist  for  centu- 
ries. The  phenomenon,  so  familiar  to  Americans,  of 
the  successive  appearance  and  growth  of  different  species 
of  timber  in  the  same  tract  of  country,  is  greatly  in  fa- 
vour of  this  idea.  I  have  little  hesitation  in  supposing, 
that  different  kinds  of  seeds,  if  imbedded  in  stone  or 
dry  earth,  and  removed  far  from  the  influence  of  air  and 
moisture,  might  be  made  to  retain  their  vegetative  qua- 
lity for  a  thousand  years.  But,  after  all,  it  is  not  cer- 
tain, that  this  singular  immortality,  upon  earth,  is  the 
exclusive  privilege  of  the  seed.  "Life  is  a  proper- 
ty WE  DO  NOT  UNDERSTAND  J".  And  WE  NEVER 
SHALL  UNDERSTAND  IT,  IF  WE  ATTEMPT  TO  CON- 
STRUCT SYSTEMS,   BEFORE    WE  KNOW  HOW   OR   WHERE 

to  collect  facts.  "  Life,  however  feeble  and  ob- 
"  scure,  is  always  life  ;  between  it  and  death,  there  is 
"  a  distance  as  great  as  between  entity  and  non-en- 
"  tity  $». 

*  Speaking  of  the  Mosses,  Dr.  Haller  has  the  following  words :  "  Im- 
"  mortalitatis  pene  aemulo  privilegio  haec  eadem  folia  gaudent ;  quae  post  centenos, 
"  &  ducentos  forte  annos,  sola  in  aqua  maceratione,  in  pristinum  vigorem  res- 
*'  titui  possint,  quod  experimentum  in  nonnullis  C  Bauhini  Muscis  feci".  Al- 
berti  v.  Haller  Historia  Stirpium  Indigenarum  Helvetiae  Inchoata.  Tom.  m, 
p.  18.     Bernae:  1768. 

t  See  the  wonderful  observations  of  Lewenhoek,  Baker,  Roffredi,  Spal- 
lanzani,  Fontana,   kc.  &c. 

%  John  Hunter.  4  Spallanzani. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  281 

I  shall  terminate  these  observations  on  the  seed 
by  observing,  that  in  the  germination  of  this  egg,  the 
plumule  constantly  mounts  upwards  to  meet  the  air, 
whilst  the  radicle  shoots  downward,  to  its  mother  earth. 
The  mechanical  philosophers  have  attempted  an  expla- 
nation of  this  singular  phenomenon.  But  their  inge- 
nuity, as  might  be  expected,  has  been  fruitlessly  em- 
ployed. I  am  not  certain,  that  Br.  Darwin  has  thrown 
much  light  upon  the  subject.  He  observes,  that  "the 
"  plumula  is  stimulated  by  the  air  into  action,  and 
"  elongates  itself,  where  it  is  thus  most'  excited;  and 
"  the  radicle  is  stimulated  by  moisture,  and  elongates 
"  itself  thus,  where  it  is  most  excited,  whence  one  of 
"  them  grows  upwards  in  quest  of  its  adapted  object, 
"and  the  other  downward*".  But  I  do  not  think 
there  is  much  difference  between  this  species  of  lan- 
guage, and  that  of  those  writers  who  have  ascribed  the 
ascent  of  the  plumule  and  the  descent  of  the  radicle  to 
"  a  mysterious  instinct",  or  to  "  a  sort  of  affectation". 
The  time  may  possibly  arrive,  when  these  movements 
of  the  embryo  in  its  germinating  state,  will  be  deemed 
instances  of  "  determinate  instinct",  as  much  as  the 
first  movements  of  certain  species  of  birds,  when  they 
have  escaped  from  their  egg  ;  as  much  so  as  the  instinct 
which  impels  the  duckling  to  seek  the  water,  or  the  chick 
of  the  American  Pheasant  (Tetrao  Cupido),  to  seek  the 
wood,  though  neither  of  them  have  been  hatched  under 
females  of  their  own  kind  j\ 

*  Phytologia,  8cc.  Feet.  ix. 

t  Mr.  Dodartplan  ed,  in  a  pot,  six  acorns,  with  the  point:;   o£  flieir  em- 
bryos upwards,  in  as  perpendicular  a  direction  as  he  could.     At  tile  ead  of  two 

months,  upon  removing;  the  earth,  he  found  that  all  the  radicles  had  made  an 
angle  to  reach  downward,  "  as  if  (to  ULe  the  words  of  Father  Hegr.ault) 
"  they  had  been  sensible  of  the  botanist's  fraud". 

o  o 


282  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

$.  VIII. 

The  Receptaculum*,  or  Receptacle,  is  the  seventh 
and  last  part  of  the  fructification  enumerated  by  Linnaeus. 
He  defines  it,  "  the  base  by  which  the  other  parts  of  the 
"  fructification  are  connected".  "  Basis  qua  partes 
"  fructificationis  connectunturf".  To  this  part  of  the 
fructification  Dr.  Boerhaave  gave  the  name  of  Placenta, 
and  the  ingenious  Sebastian  Vaillant  that  of  Thalamus. 

The  following  species  of  receptacle  are  enumerat- 
ed by  Linnaeus  :  viz.  1.  Receptaculum  Proprium.  2. 
R.  commune.  3.  Umbella.  4.  Cyma :  and,  5.  Spadix. 
In  this  place,  I  am  to  speak  of  only  the  two-first  men- 
tioned receptacles.  Of  the  three  last,  I  shall  treat 
under  a  separate  head,  viz.  that  of  inflorescence,  or  the 
mode  of  flowering. 

A.  The  receptaculum  proprium,  proper  or  peculiar 
receptacle,  appertains  to  one  fructification  only.  Of 
this  kind  is  the  receptacle  of  all  the  simple  flowers. 
This  species  of  receptacle  has  received  different  names 
from  the  particular  parts  of  the  fructification  which  it 
supports  and  connects.      Thus, 

1.  The  receptaculum  fructificationis,  or  receptacle 
of  the  fructification,  is  common  both  to  the  flower  and 
the  fruit ;  or,  in  other  words,  embraces  the  corolla  and 
the  germ. 

2.  The  receptaculum  fioris,  or  receptacle  of  the 
flower.     Here,  the  receptacle  supports  the  parts  of  the 

*  Receptaculum,  from  Becipio,  to  receive. 
f  Philosophia  Botanica,  &c.  p.  54-  §.  86. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  283 

flower  only.  In  these  cases,  the  germen,  or  seed-bud, 
which  is  placed  below  the  receptacle  of  the  flower,  has 
a  proper  base  of  its  own.  The  last  mentioned  species 
of  receptacle  is  denominated 

3.  Receptaculum  fructus,  or  receptacle  of  the  fruit. 
We  have  examples  of  it  in  Gaura,  Oenothera,  and 
others*. 

4.  Receptaculum  seminum,  or  receptacle  of  the  seed. 
This  is  the  base  to  which  the  seeds  are  fastened,  within 
their  enclosure,  or  pericarp.  This  species  of  recepta- 
cle is  denominated,  by  some  botanists,  placenta,  because 
it  is  the  common  receptacle  of  the  vasa  umbilicalia,  or 
umbilical  vessels,  through  which  nourishment  is  con- 
veyed to  the  seeds.  It  has  t  no  definite  form,  except 
when  the  common  receptacle  is  absent.  It  arises  often 
from  the  receptacle  of  the  fruit,  or  from  the  mother- pe- 
ricarp itself. — This  species  of  receptacle  assumes  a  va- 
riety of  forms,  of  which  it  is  not  my  intention  to  take 
notice,  in  this  place.  I  shall  content  myself  with  ob- 
serving, that  when  it*  is  of  a  filiform  or  thread  shape, 
it  is  called  funiculus  umbilicalis,  or  the  navel-cord. 
The  form  of  this  cord  is  very  frequently  that  of  a  slender 
thread.  In  the  Leguminous  plants,  however,  it  resem- 
bles a  fungous  peduncle \.  In  Date  (Phoenix),  and 
Lontarus,  it  better  deserves  the  name  of  a  cord,  being 
composed  of  several  fibres,  and  thicker  than  a  quill. 
The  cord  is  often  simple  :  but  in  a  few  vegetables,  it  is 
divided  into  two  branches  (rarely  into  more)  at  the  ex- 
tremity, nearest  to  the  seed.  '  Of  these  branches,  some- 

*  See  Fla  e  xvi. 
,  t  See  Plate  xxi. 


284  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

times  only  one  bears  a  seed,  and  the   other  serves  the 
purpose  of  a  fulcre,  as  in  some  species  of  Vicia  and 
rus.      Sometimes,   both  of  the  branches    have    a 
proper  seed  ;  to  them,  as  in  Tulip-tree.     In  Mag- 

nolia 'and  some  other  plants),  two  seeds  hang  from  one 
individual  cord,  of  a  cotton-like  substance. 

By  means  of  the  cord,  the  seed  coheres  intimately 
with  its  pericarp,  until  the  nutritious  vessels  being 
I  at  maturity,  the  cord  is  broken,  and  the  seeds 
being  thus  set  at  liberty,  are  scattered  upon  the  earth, 
or  other  places,  from  which  they  draw  their  future  nou- 
rishment,  in  the  manner  we  have  seen-;'-. 

B.  The  receptaculum  commune,  or  common  recep- 
tacle, connects  several  florets  or  distinct  fructifications, 
so  that  if  any  one  of  them  be  removed,  an  irregularity 
is  occasioned.  We  have  instances  of  this  species  of 
receptacle  in  the  Compound-flowers,  and  also  in  the 
Umbel,  Cyme,  Spadix,  and  Rachis,  which  are  after- 
wards to  be  mentioned  f. 

The  receptacle  is,  1.  punctatum,  dotted  or  punc- 
tate ;  sprinkled  with  hollow  points,  or  dots  :  as  in  Le- 
ontodon,  Cacalia,  Ethulia,  Chrysanthemum,  and 
others.  2.  pilosum,  hairy  ;  having  hairs  between  the 
florets,  as  In  Carduus,  &c.  3-  paleaceum,  paleaceous 
or  chaffy  ;  the  florets  being  separated  by  intermediate 
scalers,  resembling  chaff;  as  in  Teasel  (Dipsacus), 
Scabious  (Scabiosi.),  &c.  4.  nudum,  naked;  neither 
dotted,  hairy,  nor  paleaceous  ;  as  in  Leontodon,  Lac- 
tuca,    Sonchus,  &c.  &c,     5-  planum,  flat.     6.  convex- 

*  Sec  pages  2GC\  Sec.  f  Sec  Plates  xxui  k  xxiv. 


ELEMENTS   OF   BOTANY.  285 

urn,  convex.  7.  conicum,  conical,  columnar ;  attenu- 
ated towards  the  apex.  8-  subulatum,  subulate.  9. 
aheolatum,  alveolate,  or  honey-combed  ;  divided  into 
open  cells,  like  an  honey-comb,  with  a  seed  lodged  in 
each  cell ;  as  in  Cotton-Thistle  (Onopordum),  and 
others. 

In  drawing  the  generic  characters  of  plants,  the  re- 
ceptacle is  a  part  which  ought  always  to  be  attended  to. 
It  is  seldom  omitted  by  Linnaeus,  in  his  Genera  Plan- 
tarum.  In  discriminating  the  genera  of  the  class  Syn- 
genesia,  it  is  a  character  of  very  great  importance. 

I  have  now  finished  the  consideration  of  all  the 
seven  parts  of  the  fructification  enumerated  by  Linnaeus. 
I  shall  conclude  the  first  part  of  these  Elements  with 
some  account  of  the  lnfloresccntia,  or  Inflorescence  of 
vegetables,  and  the  Calendavium  Flora. 


5.  IX. 

By  the  term  Inflorescentia,  Linnaeus  means  the 
various  modes  in  which  flowers  are  fastened  to  the  plant, 
by  means  of  the  peduncle*;  This  is  what  Ludwig, 
and  many  other  botanists  have  denominated  Modus 
Florendi.  These  modes  arc  thirteen  in  number,  viz.  1. 
Spadix.  2.  Cyma.  3.  Umbclla-  4.  Spica-  5-  Amen- 
tum. 6.  Strobilus.  7.  Corymbus.  8.  Racemus.  9. 
Pankula.  10.  Thyrsus-  11.  Fasciculus.  12.  Capitu- 
lum :     and,    13.    VcrtlciUus.     The   three    first  of  these 

*  "  Intlorescen'tia  est  modus  quo  fiores  pedunculo  plantac  annectimtur, 
"  quern  Modum  Florendi  dixere  antecessoreb".  Philosophia  Botanica,  ike.  p.  112, 
S-  163. 


286  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

have  already  been  mentioned  under  the  head  of  recepta- 
cle, but  are  to  be  more  particularly  noticed  in  this 
place. 

1.  The  Spadix  is  the  receptacle  of  the  Palms  and 
some  other  plants,  and  proceeds  from  that  species  of 
calyx  which  is  called  spatha,  or  spathe*.  It  is  either 
branched  (ramosus),  as  in  the  Palms  ;  or  simple  f sim- 
plex J,  as  in  Indian-Turnip  (Arum  triphyllum),  Pole- 
cat-weed, or  Skunk-Cabbage  (Dracontium  foetidum), 
and  others. 

The  simple  or  unbranched  spadix  admits  of  some 
variety.  Thus,  in  Calla,  Dracontium,  Pothos,  and 
Golden-club  (Orontium  aquaticum),  the  florets  cover 
it  on  all  sides.  In  Indian-Turnip,  they  are  disposed  on 
the  lower  parts  only,  and  in  Grass-wrack  (Zostera  ma- 
rina), on  one  side  only. 

According  to  the  number  of  flowers  which  it 
supports,  the  spadix  has  received  the  following  names, 
viz.  1.  uniflorus,  one-flowered.  2.  biflorus,  two-flower- 
ed.    3.  multijloruS)  many-flowered. 

2.  The  Cymaf,  or  Cyme.  This  is  defined  by 
Linnaeus  to  be  an  aggregate  flower  composed  of  several 
florets  sitting  on  a  receptacle,  producing  all  the  primary 
peduncles  from  the  same  point,  but  having  the  partial 
peduncles  scattered  or  irregular  ;  all  fastigiate,  or  form- 
ing a  fiat  surface  at  top.  We  have  instances  of  the  cyme 
in  Guelder-Rose  or  Snow-Ball  (Viburnum  Opulus),  in 

*  See  pages  117  8c  118. 

f  Cyma  signifies  properly  a  sprout  or  tender  shoot,  particularly  of  the  Cab- 
bage.    In  these  senses,  the  term  is  used  by  Pliny,  and  Columella, 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  287 

Ophiorhiza,  and  various  species  of  Cornel  or  Dogwood, 
such  as  Cornus  sanguinea,   Cornus  sericea,  &c.  &c 

The  cyma  is  either,  1.  bracteata,  bracteate  ;  fur- 
nished with  bractes :  or,  2.  nuda,  naked ;  without 
bractes. 

Flowers  which  are  disposed  in  a  cyme,  are  called 
cymose  flowers  ;  cymosus  Jlos-  In  the  former  editions 
of  Linnaeus's  Fragments  of  a  Natural  Method,  place 
was  given  to  an  order,  Cymosce,  consisting  of  Honey- 
suckle, Morinda,  Loranthus,  and  a  few  other  genera. 
In  later  editions  of  the  work,  most  of  these  genera  were 
removed  to  the  order  Aggregatae  *. 

3.  Th  e  Umbella,  or  Umbel,  is  a  receptacle  stretched 
out  into  filiform  proportioned  peduncles  from  the  same 
centre.  I  have  already  given  some  account  of  this  spe- 
cies of  receptacle,  or  mode  of  flowering,  when  treating 
of  the  involucrum,  or  involucre  f.  Several  circum- 
stances, however,  respecting  the  umbel  are  to  be  noticed 
in  this  place. 

a.  The  umbel  is  either,  \- simplex,  simple,  or  un- 
divided ;  as  in  Ginseng  (Panax  quinquefolium).  2. 
composita,  compound ;  each  peduncle  bearing  another 
little  umbel,  or  umbellule.  In  this  case,  the  first  or 
larger  set  of  rays,  constitute  the  universal  umbel 
( umbella     universalis) ;     while    the    second    or     su- 

*  See  Part  III. 
t  Seepages  113  4i  114.     See,  also,  Part  III.  Class  v.    Pkktandiua.. 


288  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

bordinate  set  of  peduncles  constitute  the  partial  umbel 
fumbella  partialis  J.  3.  prolifera,  proliferous,  superde- 
compound,  or  more  than  decompound. 

b.  The  umbella  is  also,  1.  concava,  concave.  2. 
fastigiata,  fastigiate  ;  or  rising  gradually  like  the  roof 
of  a  house.  3.  convcxa,  convex.  4.  crccta,  erect.  5. 
nutans,  nodding.  6-  terminalis,  terminal.  7.  axillaris , 
axillary ;   and,  8.  oppositifolia,  oppositifolious. 

Flowers  which  grow  in  the  manner  of  an  umbel, 
are  denominated  Umbellati,  Umbellate,  or  Umbelled 
flowers.  By  many  writers,  they  are  denominated  Um- 
belliferce,  or  Umbelliferous  plants. 

Umbellate  is  the  name  of  the  twenty- second  order 
in  Linnceus's  Fragments ;  and  of  the  forty-fifth  in  his 
natural  orders.  The  greater  number  of  these  plants 
belong  to  the  second  order  of  the  fifth  class  of  the  sexual 
system.  Ray,  Jussieu,  and  other  writers,  have  called 
these  plants,  Umbelliferae,  and  Caesalpinus,  Ferulacea. 
I  shall,  in  a  more  proper  place,  give  a  list  of  the  princi- 
pal genera  of  this  great  natural  family  *. 

^ 

4.  The  Spicaf,  or  Spike,  is  a  species  of  inflorescence 
in  which  sessile  flowers,  or  flowers  without  peduncles, 
are  (scatteringly)  alternate  on  a  common  simple  pedun- 
cle. We  have  examples  of  this  mode  of  inflorescence 
in  an  ear  of  Wheat,  Rye,   or  Barley,  and  many  other 

*  See  Part  III.  Class  v.     Pentandria. 

f  From  spes,  hope  :  from  ain^v,  to  extend  ;  or  from  (rrrxyvs  j:ol.  for  <rlai)Q>fy 
whence  Spicus,  Spica,  and  a^b/cwm,  "  for  (as  Dr.  Martyn  observesj  it  is  used  in 
"  all  the  three  genders",     these  terms  signify  an  ear  of  corn. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  289 

Grasses ;     and    in    Lavender     (Lavendula),    Mullein 
(Verbascum),   Agrimony,  and  many  other  plants. 

The  flowers  of  a  spike  are  situated  immediately 
upon  the  stalk,  without  any  partial  peduncles,  or  foot- 
stalks, as  has  already  been  observed.  This  circum- 
stance distinguishes  the  mode  of  inflorescence  of  which 
I  am  speaking,  from  the  raceme,  which  is  presently  to 
be  mentioned.  Often,  however,  in  a  spike,  along  with 
the  sessile  flowers,  we  find  flowers  that  are  pedunculat- 
ed ;  as  in  some  species  of  Cyperus,  &c. 

The  spica  is,  1.  seamda*,  single-rowed  or  one- 
ranked  f  ;  that  is  all  turned  towards  one  side,  or  direct- 
ed or  inclined  the  same  way.  We  have  an  instance  of  this 
in  American  Cock's  foot-grass  (Dactylis  cynosurioides). 
2.  disticba,  two-ranked  or  rowed;  all  the  flowers  point- 
ing two  ways  ;  and,  consequently,  opposed  to  secunda. 
This  is  instanced  in  Bog-Rush  (Schoenus),  &c.  3. 
tetrasticha,    four-ranked.     4.    hexasticha^    six-ranked. 

The  Spicula^  Spicule,  or  Spikelet,  is  a  partial 
spike,  or  a  subdivision  of  a  true  spike.  This  occurs 
in  some  of  the  Grasses,  as  Darnel,   &c. 

The  filiform  receptacle  which  connects  the  florets 
longitudinally  into  a  spike,  is  denominated  Rachis  %. 
"  Receptaculum  filiforme  flosculos  longitudinaliter  an- 
"  nectens  in  spicam  §".     It  has  received  the  name  of 

*  "  We  have  no  proper  English  term  for  this.      One-ranked  tends  to  mis- 
"  lead,  because  a  plant  may  have  more  ranks  or  rows  of  flowers  than  one  di- 
»'  rected  to  the  same  point  of  the  horizon,  or  nearly  so".     Professor  Martyn. 
•j-  Darwin. 

\  ^sxyjs,  the  back-bone,  or  spine.  \  Delineatio  Plantje. 

pp 


290  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

rachis,  from  its  bearing  some  resemblance,  when  it  is 
naked  or  deprived  of  the  florets,  to  the  spine.  "We 
have  good  examples  of  this  species  of  receptacle  in  dif- 
ferent species  of  Panic-grass,  such  as  Panicum  crus 
corvi,  P.  crus  galli ;  in  Darnel  (Lolium),  and  in  many- 
other  Grasses. 

5.  Of  the  Ament  and  Strobilus,  I  have  already  taken 
particular  notice,  when  treating  of  the  various  species 
of  calyx  *,  and  of  pericarp  f .  I  shall  only  observe, 
in  his  place,  that  the  ament  is  more  properly  referred 
to  the  head  of  inflorescence  than  that  of  calyx  J. 

6.  The  Corymbus,  or  Corymb  $,■  is  said  by  Lin- 
nceus,  to  be  "  made  up  of  a  spike,  whilst  each  flower 
"  is  furnished  with  its  proper  footstalk,  or  peduncle,  in 
"  an  elevated  proportioned  situation".  Linnasus's  defi- 
nition is  not  very  intelligible,  and  hence  different  bota- 
nists have  given  a  different  interpretation  of  the  words. 
In  this  species  of  inflorescence,  the  smaller  or  partial 
flower-stalks  are  produced  along  the  common  stalk,  on 
both  sides,  and  although  they  are  of  unequal  lengths, 
they  rise  to  the  same  height,  so  as  to  form  at  the  top,  a 
flat  and  even  surface. 

We  have  examples  of  this  mode  of  flowering  in  the 
following,  among  other,  vegetables,  viz.  Nine-bark  or 
Seven-bark  (Spiraea  opulifolia,   Scurvy-grass   (Cochlea- 

*'  See  pages  115-117.     See,  also,  Plate  xxvu.    ^ 
t  See  pages  195  &  19C\ 

\  The  Strobile  gives  name  to  a  particular  species  of  spike  (spica  strobili- 
/ormis J,  or  strobile-shaped  spike,  of  which  we  have  an  example  in  Justicia 
Ecbolium. 

fj  Professor  Martyn. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  291 

ria  officinalis),  Gold  of  Pleasure   (Myagrum  sativum), 
and  other  Tetradynamous  plants. 

The  corymb  differs  from  the  umbel  in  this  circum- 
stance, that  in  the  former  the  numerous  partial  foot- 
stalks take  their  origin  from  different  parts  of  the  com- 
mon stalk  ;  whilst  in  the  latter,  as  we  have  already 
seen,  all  the  peduncles  proceed  from  a  common  centre. 
The  corymb,  it  has  been  observed,  is  a  mean  between 
the  umbel  and  the  raceme.  Like  them,  its  flowers  are 
furnished  with  their  proper  footstalks,  which  rise  gra- 
dually from  the  bottom  to  the  top,  as  do  those  of  the 
raceme,  and  are  extended  to  the  same  height,  as  are 
those  of  the  umbel. 

The  term  corymbus  is  sanctioned  by  classical  au- 
thority. Pliny  uses  it  for  a  cluster  of  Ivy-berries. 
"  Hederae  racemis  in  orbem  circumactis,  qui  vocantur 
"  corymbi  *".  Columella  puts  it  for  the  head  of  an 
Artichoke,     or  Thistle  : 

"  Haec  modo  purpureo  surgit  glamerata  corymbof". 

7.  RacemusJ,  Raceme,  or  Cluster,  is  the  name  of 
the  eighth  species  of  inflorescence  enumerated  by  Lin- 
naeus. It  is  a  species  of  flowering  in  which  the  flowers, 
placed  along  a  common  footstalk,  are  furnished  with 
short  proper  footstalks  that  proceed  as  lateral  branches 
from  the  common  stalk. 

The  raceme  and  the  spike  are  nearly  allied  to  each 
other  :   for  in  both,  the  flowers  are  placed  along  a  com- 

•  Naturalis  Historix  Lib.  xvt.  cap.  xxxiv. 

f  De  Re  Rustica,  &c.  Lib.  x.    De  cultu  Hortorum,  1.  237. 

J  From  «a£?   pxyosy  acinus  racime- 


292  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

mon  footstalk,  or  receptacle ;  but  in  the  spike,  as  we 
have  seen,  the  flowers  are  sessile,  whereas  in  the  ra- 
ceme they  are  pedunculated.  In  general,  too,  the 
flowers  are  less  abundant  in  the  spike  than  in  the  raceme. 
But  to  this,  there  are  many  exceptions.  I  have  already 
noticed  the  essential  difference  between  the  raceme  and 
the  corymb. 

The  racemus  is,  1.  simplex,  simple  ;  or,  2.  com- 
positus,  compound-  3.  unilateralism  one-sided  ;  having 
all  the  flowers  growing  on  one  side  of  the  peduncle  ;  as 
in  Serrated  Winter-green  (Pyrola  secunda).  4.  secwida, 
all  bent  or  directed  the  same  way.  5.  pedatus,  pedate. 
6.  conjugatus,  conjugate.  7.  erectus,  erect.  8.  laxus, 
loose.  9.  dependens,  hanging  down  and  pointing  to  the 
ground.     10.  nudus,  naked.     11.  foliatus,  leafy. 

We  have  good  and  familiar  examples  of  the  ra- 
ceme in  the  Vine,  the  Currant,  the  Poke,  different  spe- 
cies of  Primus,  or  Plumb,  such  as  the  common  Wild- 
Cherry  (Primus  virginiana),  &c. 

In  the  Latin  language,  racemus  signifies  a  cluster 
or  bunch  of  Grapes,  Ivy-berries,  &c.  Thus  Pliny  : 
Hederae  "  est  minor  acinus,   sparsior  racemus  *"• 

8.  Paniculaf,  or  Panicle,  is  the  name  of  the  eight 
species  of  inflorescence.  In  this,  the  flowers  or  fruits 
are  scattered  on  peduncles,  variously  subdivided.  In 
other  words,  it  i   a  kind  of  branching  or  diffused  spike, 

•  Lib.  xvi.  cap.  xxxiv. 

•}■  From  ittXDixX)  coma,  a  bush  or  head  of  hair  (see  page  80),  &c. ;  or  ra- 
ther from  panus,  the  woof  about  the  quill  in  the  shuttle.  Pliny,  in  one  place 
(Lib.  xvi.  cap.  xxxvi)  uses  this  word  to  designate  the  down  upon  Reeds. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  293 

composed  of  a  number  of  small  spikes,  which  are  fixed 
along  a  common  receptacle,  or  footstalk.  We  have  in- 
stances of  this  form  of  inflorescence  in  Oats,  Panic- 
grass,  and  many  other  plants. 

The  following  are  the  principal  species  or  varieties 
of  panicula  enumerated  by  the  botanists,  viz.  1.  panicula 
congesta,  a  heaped  panicle  ;  having  a  great  abundance 
of  flowers.  2.  p>  densa,  a  dense  or  close  panicle  (This 
is  an  higher  degree  of  the  above  ;  or,  in  other  words, 
a  panicle  which  has  the  flowers  both  close  and  abundant). 
3.  p>  spicata,  a  spiked  panicle  ;  approaching  in  form  to 
a  spike  ;  as  in  Phleum  crinitum,  and  other  Grasses, 
which  are  called  Spiked  Grasses.  4.  p.  contracta,  a  con- 
tracted panicle  ;  a  greater  degree  of  the  foregoing.  5. 
p.  coarctata,  a  squeezed  panicle  ;  having  the  peduncles 
extremely  near  to  each  other.  6.  p.  patens,  a  spreading 
panicle  ;  having  the  peduncles  spreading  out  so  as  to 
form  an  acute  angle  with  the  stem.  7-  p-  diffusa,  a  dif- 
fused panicle  ;  having  the  peduncles  spreading  out  more 
and  more  irregularly.  8.  p>  dharicata,  a  divaricating 
panicle  ;  spreading  out  still  more,  at  an  obtuse  angle 
with  the  stem. 

9.  The  Thyrsus*,  or  Thyrse,  is  a  mode  of  inflo- 
rescence very  nearly  allied  to  the  panicle,  being,  in  fact, 
a  panicle  contracted  into  an  ovate,  or  egg-shaped  form. 
In  the  thyrse,  the  lower  footstalks,  which  are  longer,  ex- 
tend horizontally,  whilst  the  upper  ones  are  shorter,  and 
rise  up  vertically.  We  have  instances  of  this  beautiful 
species  of  inflorescence  in  Lilac  (Syringa  vulgaris),  in 
Butter-bur  (Tussilago  Petasites),  and  other  plants. 

*  The  Greek  ^v^crost  from  Svv,  impeiujeror,  erumpo,  to  burst  forth. 


294  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

10.  The  Fasciculus  *,  or  Fascicle,  is  a  species  of 
inflorescence,  in  which  several  upright,  parallel,  fastigi- 
ate,  approximating  flowers,  are  collected  together  f  ;  as 
in  Sweet- William  (Dianthus  barbatus),  and  others. 

11.  The  Capitulum  J,  or  Head,  isthat  species  of  in- 
florescence; in  which  several  flowers  form  a  kind  of  ball, 
or  head,  at  the  extremity  or  summits  of  the  foot- stalk  ; 
as  in  Globe-amaranthus,  or  Bachelor's  Buttons  (Gom- 
phrena  globosa),  and  others. 

The  capitulum  is,  1.  globosum,  globular  or  round; 
as  in  Gomphrena  globosa.  2.  dimidiatum,  halved  ;  he- 
mispherical, or  resembling  half  a  head  ;  as  in  Lippia 
hemisphaerica.  3.  ovatum,  ovate;  or  egg-shaped;  as 
in  Lippia  ovata.  4.  hispidum,  hispid,  or  bristly  ;  as  in 
Field-Basil  (Clinopodium  vulgare).  5.  foliosum,  leafy ; 
intermixed  with  leaves.  6.  nudum,  naked  ;  having  no 
leaves  :  of  course  opposed  to  the  leafy.  7-  peduncula- 
tum,  peduncled,  or  furnished  with  little  footstalks  ;  as  in 
Teucrium  capitatum.  8«  sessile,  sessile ;  having  no 
short  footstalks ;  as  in  Teucrium  pumilum.  9.  py- 
ramidatum,  pyramidal ;  shaped  like  a  pyramid  ;  as  in 
Lippia  americana.  10.  subrotundum,  subrotund,  or 
roundish ;  as  in  Selago  fruticosa. 

12.  The  Verticillus  $  is  the  thirteenth  and  last  spe- 
cies of  inflorescence  enumerated  by   Linnaeus-      It  is 

*  Diminutive,  from  fastis,   a  bundle. 

t  Colligit  (says  Linnaeus)  flores  erectos,  parallelos,  fastigiatos,  approxi- 
mates". 

X  Capitulum,  in  Latin,  signifies  a  littk  head,  the  top,  or  chapeter  of  a  pil- 
lar, &c. 

y  From  verto,  to  turn. 


♦ 

ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  295 

called  in  English  the  Whirl  or  Whorl  *.  It  is  made  up 
of  many  subsessile  flowers,  which  surround  the  stem, 
in  the  form  of  a  ring.  We  have  instances  of  this  inflo- 
rescence in  Penny-Royal  (Mentha  Pulegium),  Hore- 
hound  (Marrubium  vulgare),  Callicarpa  americana  f, 
and  many  other  plants.  This  species  of  inflorescence, 
indeed,  gives  name  to  an  extensive  natural  family  of 
plants,  which  are  particularly  mentioned  in  the  course 
of  this  work  J. 

The  verticillus  is,  1.  sessilis,  sessile,  without  pe- 
duncles.    2.  pediinculatuS)  peduncled  ;  with  peduncles. 

3.  nudus,  naked;  without  involucre,  bracte,  or  bristle. 

4.  bracteatusy  bracted ;  furnished  with  bractes.  5. 
involucratuSy  involucred ;  furnished  with  an  involucre. 
6.  confertus,  crowded.  7.  dista?is,  distant.  8.  remo- 
tus,  remote. 

13.  I  have  now  given  some  account  of  all  the  va- 
rious species  of  inflorescence  that  are  enumerated  by 
Linnaeus.  But  I  must  not  close  this  subject,  without 
observing,  that  in  some  plants  the  flowers  grow  upon 
the  leaves.  This  is  the  case  in  the  genus  Ruscus,  or 
Butcher's  broom.  Linnaeus  does  not  designate  this 
species  of  inflorescence  (for  such  it  seems  entitled  to  be 
called)  by  any  particular  name  ;  but  in  Ruscus,  he  calls 
it  "  leaf-bearing".  A  similar  mode  of  flowering  oc- 
curs in  Osyris  japonica  ;  a  native  of  Japan.     Professor 

*  It  is  most  commonly  written  whorl ;  but  whirl  seems  the  more  proper  or- 
thography ;  "  since  (as  Martyn  observes)  it  must  be  derived  from  the  verb  f 
•abirl,  which  signiiies  to  turn  rapidly". 

f  See  Plate  x.  Fig.  o. 

\  See  Part  in.  Class  xjv.     Didykawia.. 


296  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

Thunberg  *,  who  observed  it  in  this  vegetable,  speaks 
of  it  as  a  very  rare  species  of  structure  in  the  vegetable 
world. 


Calendarium  Flor^:. 

"  Poma  dat  Autumnus,  Formosa  est  messibus  ^Estas, 
"  Ver  prabet  flores". 


Ovid. 


The  Calendarium  Flora,  or  Calendar  of  Flora, 
should  contain  an  exact  register  of  the  respective  times 
in  which  plants  of  any  given  province  or  climate,  ger- 
minate t>  expand  J,  and  shed  their  leaves  §,  and  also 
flowers,  and  ripen  and  disperse  their  seeds  I!.  It  should 
also  contain  a  register  of  the  states  or  changes  of  the 
weather,  as  they  are  indicated  by  the  thermometer,  the 
barometer,  hygrometer,  &c  ;  with  remarks  concerning 
the  appearances  of  electrical  or  other  phenomena  ;  such 
as  lightning,  the  aurora  borealis,  earthquakes,  lam- 
pades,  and  other  atmospheric  meteors,  &c  To  these 
may  be  added  notices  concerning  the  appearance  and 
disappearance  of  different  species  of  birds  ;  the  seasons 
of  their  amours,  their  incubations,  &c. ;  together  with 
remarks  concerning  the  appearances,  the  depredations, 
&c,  of  insects,  and  other  animals.  These  last-men- 
tioned circumstances  do  not,  indeed,  form  a  necessary 

*  Flora  Japonica,  8cc.  p.  31. 

•j"  See  pages  266,  &c.  &.c. 

^  See  pages  63  &  64. 

^  See  pages  64  &  65. 

||  "  Calendafia  Flora  quotannls  conficienda  sunt  in  quavis  Provincia,  secun- 
»'  dum  Frondescentiam,  Efflorescentiam,  Fructescentiam,  Defoliationem,  ob- 
"  servato  simul  Climate  ;  at  inde  constet  diversitas  Rcgionum  inter  se".  Pbi- 
losophia  Botanica,  &c.  p.  276.  ^.  335. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  297 

part  of  a  Calendarium  Florae,  but  they  are  of  service 
in  a  variety  of  ways. 

There  is,  undoubtedly,  a  very  remarkable  coin- 
cidence between  the  vegetation  of  some  plants  and  the 
arrival  of  certain  birds  of  passage.  Linnaeus  has  ob- 
served, that  the  Wood- Anemone  (Anemone  nemorosa) 
blows  in  Sweden  on  the  arrival  of  the  Common  Swallow 
(Hirundo  urbica),  and  that  the  Marsh- Mary  gold  (Caltha 
palustris),  blows  when  the  Cuckow  (Cuculus  canorus) 
sings*.  Nearly  the  same  coincidence  was  remarked  in 
England  by  Mr.  Stillingfleet.  Dr.  Darwin  observes, 
that  the  "  word  Coccux  in  Greek  signifies  both  a  young 
"  fig  and  a  cuckow,  which  is  supposed  to  have  arisen 
"  from  the  coincidence  of  their  appearance  in  Greece  t"» 
Many  instances  of  a  similar  coincidence  might  be  point- 
ed out  between  the  flowering  of  certain  North- American 
vegetables  and  the  arrival  of  particular  species  of  birds 
Thus,  it  is  observed,  that  the  Wood-cock  (Scolopax 
Gallinago)  commonly  visits  the  neighbourhood  of  Phi- 
ladelphia, when  the  American  Elm  (Ulmus  americana) 
is  in  full  blossom  ;  that  is  between  the  8th  and  the  18th 
of  March.  Many  of  our  Indians  consider  the  coming 
of  the  Goat-sucker,  or  Whip-poor-will  (Caprimulgus 
virginianus),  as  the  truest  harbinger  of  spring.  Ac- 
cordingly, upon  the  arrival  of  this  bird,  they  begin  to 
plant  the  ground,  with  great  assiduity. 

•  Amoenitates  Academicx.    Vol.  iv.     Dissertatio  lxvii. 
t  Botanic  Garden.     Part  II.  Canto  i.     Note. 


<Lq 


293  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

Although  Calendar ia  Flora  have  never  been  very 
minutely  attended  to,  except  among  civilized  nations, 
it  is  a  fact,  that  the  time  of  leafing,  flowering,  fruiting, 
&c,  of  vegetables,  are  circumstances  which  greatly  in- 
terest the  people  in  the  savage  state  of  society.  Thus, 
among  our  Indians,  some  of  the  months  are  designated 
by  circumstances  derived  from  the  state  of  vegetation 
in  their  country.  These  people  have  a  "  Strawberry- 
month",  a  "Mulberry  month",  &c.  Othersof  the  months 
have  received  their  names  from  the  time  of  the  flowering 
of  particular  vegetables,  especially  the  Common  Dog- 
wood (Cornus  florida),  which  contributes  so  much  to 
beautify  our  forests  with  its  fine  large  white  involucres, 
early  in  the  spring.  The  Chikkasah  and  Choktah  In- 
dians call  the  Spring-season,  Otoolpha,  from  Oolpba, 
the  name  in  their  language  for  a  bud,  or  to  shoot  out.' 
TheCheerake-Indiansdenominate  the  autumn, Oolekboste., 
"  the  fall  of  the  leaf".  Some  of  the  more  northern 
tribes  say,  that  the  proper  time  to  plant  the  Indian-corn 
is  when  the  Wild-Plumb  (Primus  canadensis)  blooms- 
Some  of  the  tribes  plant  their  corn  when  the  leaves  of 
the  White  Oak  (Quercus  alba)  have  attained  the  size  of 
a  squirrels  ears.  It  would  be  easy  to  mention  many 
other  circumstances  of  this  kind,  all  calculated  to  show, 
that  "the  agricultural  rules  of  savage  nations  arc  fre- 
"  quently  founded,  in  a  great  measure,  upon  the  fron- 
"  descencc,  together  with  the  time  of  flowering  of  dif- 
"  ferent  vegetables,  indigenous  in  their  countries*". 

Nor  are  the  Indians  inattentive,  in  their  calendars, 
to  a  great   variety  of  circumstances,  derived  from  the 

*  Sec  p"ge  63. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  299 

animal  kingdom.  Thus,  the  Carolina-Indians  called 
one  of  their  months  "  the  Herring-month",  from  the 
time  of  the  arrival  of  this  species  of  fish  in  the  rivers  of 
their  country.  Some  of  the  more  northern  Indians  call 
August  the  "  Sturgeon-month",  because  during  this 
month,  they  catch  a  great  abundance  of  sturgeons  (A- 
cipenser).  To  November,  they  give  the  name  of  the 
"  Beaver-month",  because  very  generally  in  this  month, 
these  animals,  having  collected  a  sufficient  store  of  win- 
ter-provisions, take  shelter  in  their  houses.  Extending 
their  observations  to  still  smaller  objects,  the  Indians 
call  March  "  the  Worm-month  or  Moon",  because  at 
this  season  many  species  of  minute  animals  (principally 
insects)  leave  their  retreats  in  the  bark  of  trees,  in 
wood,  &c,  where  they  have  passed  the  winter-season,  in 
a  state  of  great  inaction  or  torpidity.  Many  other  ex- 
amples of  the  like  kind,  might  be  mentioned.  But  this 
is  not  the  proper  place  to  dwell  upon  the  subject. 

The  following  lines  from  Virgil,  are  calculated  to 
show,  that  the  Romans  had  paid  great  attention  to  the 
appearance  of  certain  birds  of  passage,  as  a  guide  to 
them  in  their  agricultural  rules  : 

"  Nee  tibi  tarn  prudens  quisquam  persuadeat  auctor 

"  Tellurem  borea  rigidam  spirante  moveri  : 

"  Rura  gelu  turn  claudit  hiems,  nee  semine  jaeto 

'*  Concretam  patitur  radicem  affigere  terra. 

"  Optima  vinetis  satio,  quum  vere  rubenti 

"  Candida  venit  avis  longis  invisa  colubris  ; 

"  Prima  vel  autumni  sub  IHgora,  quum  rapidus  sol 

"  Nondum  biemem  contlngit  equis,  jam  prxterit  icstas". 

GEoncic.  Lib.  ii.  I.  315-322. 


300  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

"  Dare  not  to  plant  when  wint'ry  Boreas  blows, 

"  Leave  sullen  earth  in  undisturb'd  repose  : 

"  Shrunk  are  her  frozen  pores,  and,  clos'd  with  cold, 

«  Forbid  the  root  to  pierce  th'  unyielding  mould. 

"  Wait,  till,  returning  on  the  gale  of  Spring, 

«  The  snake-fed  bird  *  unfolds  his  silver  wing, 

»'  Or  the  slope  sun  his  flying  axle  speeds, 

"  And,  ere  bleak  Winter,  Autumn  chills  the  meads." 

Sothebt. 

Calendaria  Floras,  if  they  be  properly  kept, 
form  some  of  the  most  interesting  notices  in  the  natural 
history  of  a  country.  They  form,  next  to  the  living, 
the  best,  picture  of  the  country.  They  show  us,  in  the 
most  beautiful  and  impressive  manner,  the  relations  of 
the  vegetable  and  the  animal  kingdoms  to  each  other, 
and  to  the  various  agents  by  which  they  are  surrounded, 
and  by  which  they  are  affected.  They  enable  us  to 
compare  together  the  climates  of  different  countries  or 
places,  which  are  included  within  nearly  the  same  lati- 
tudes, such  as  Florida  and  Palestine,  Philadelphia  and 
Pekin,  New-York  and  Rome,  not  to  mention  many 
others.  In  the  hands  of  future  ages,  they  will  be  deem- 
ed among  the  most  precious  monuments  of  natural  his- 
tory that  can  be  bequeathed  by  an  inquisitive  and  en- 
lightened people.  For,  to  apply  the  observation  to  the 
countries  of  the  United- States:  if  our  climates  have  (as 
is  by  many  asserted)  already  undergone  considerable 
changes  t,  our  winters  in  particular  becoming  much 
more  mild  and  open,  will  it  be  doubted,  that  a  great  al- 

*    The  Stork. 

f  Whether,  however,  this  change  has  actually  taken  place  in  the  United- 
States,  is,  in  my  opinion,  a  very  doubtful  point  I  shall  not  omit  to  examine 
this  question  in  my  "  Comparative  estimate  of  the  climates  of  Nor.h-America 
and  of  Asia,  within  the  same  parallels  of  la'.itude". 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  301 

teration  is  to  take  place  in  respect  to  the  periods  of  the 
germination,  the  frondescence,  the  flowering,  the  de- 
foliation, &c,  of  many  of  our  vegetables?  And  as  the 
migrations  of  birds  are  essentially  governed  by  the  state 
of  the  climate,  which  governs  vegetation,  and  the 
changes  of  insects,  will  it  be  doubted,  that  the  seasons 
of  the  movements  of  our  birds  may,  at  some  future  pe- 
riod, be  essentially  varied  from  their  present  ones? 

One  of  the  most  complete  specimens  of  a  Calendarium 
Flora,  is  that  by  A.  M.  Berger,  in  the  Amoenltates  Acade- 
mic*. Since  the  first  appearance  of  this  specimen,  several 
calendars,  upon  the  same,  or  nearly  the  same,  plan,  have 
been  published  in  many  of  the  countries  of  Europe.  Of 
these  I  must  particularly  notice,  The  Xaturalisf  s  Calen- 
dar\,  by  the  late  Rev.  Gilbert  White,  of  Selborne,  in  Hamp- 
shire (England).  This  is  a  very  interesting  morcel  of  the 
kind,  which  I  would  recommend  to  the  perusal  of  those  who 
may  wish  to  amuse  themselves  in  similar  essays. — We 
have,  also,  a  valuable  calendar,  entitled  "  Indications  of 
Spring,"  by  another  English  writer,  Robert  Marsham,  Esq. 
F.  R.  S.  It  contains  the  author's  observations  made  during 
near  half  a  centun-J.  This  calendar  proves,  that  there  is  a 
much  greater  analogy  between  the  climate  on  the  east  coast 
of  Britain,  in  the  county  of  Norfolk,  and  that  of  Philadelphia, 
in  regard  to  the  leafing  and  flowering  of  certain  vegetables, 
the  first  appearance  of  Swallows  and  other  birds,  &c,  &c, 
than  might  be  imagined. — My  friend,  the  late  Professor 
Walker  $,  of  Edinburgh,  kept  a  Calendar  at  Moffat,  in 

*  Vol.  IV.  Dissertatio  lxvii.  f  London:  1795. 

i  Philosophical  Transactions,  vol.  lxxix.  For  1789.  Part  ii.  art.  xiii. 

$  I  cannot  omit  this  opportunity  of  paying-  a  tribute  of  grateful  respect  to  the 
memory  of  this  excellent  man.  During  my  residence  in  Edinburgh,  I  received 
many  marks  of  kindness  and  attention  from  him    Never,  indeed,  can  I  forget  the 

n  C 


302  ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 

Scotland,  during  the  year  1779.  In  this  calendar,  he  re- 
marked, that  the  North- American  native  plants  vtrnated 
sooner  than  the  indigenous  trees  of  the  island.  He  observed, 
that  the  Pear-tree  (Pyrus  communis)  blossoms  at  Moffat 
nearly  a  month  earlier  than  it  does  at  Upsal,  in  Sweden.  I 
find,  that  the  difference  of  the  time  of  flowering  of  this 
tree,  at  Philadelphia  and  Upsal  (about  twenty  degrees  of 
latitude)  is  nearly  thirty-five  days. 

I  have  published  a  specimen  of  a  Calendarium  Flora?, 
adapted  to  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia*.  I  have,  also,  col- 
lected materials  for  a  much  more  complete  work  of  this 
kind,  which  it  is  my  intention  to  publish,  on  some  future 
occasion. 


hours,  invaluable  to  me,  which  I  passed  in  the  company,  and  at  the  hospitable 
board,  of  the  Reverend  Dr.  Walker.  In  him,  more  than  in  any  other  man  I  have 
known,  were  united  an  extensive  acquaintance  with  natural  history,  and  that  in- 
nocent and  almost  infantine  simplicity  of  manners,  which  so  frequently  charac- 
terize real  genius,  and  the  pure  enthusiasm  of  love  for  the  study  of  nature. 
Though  I  never  attended  the  lectures  of  Dr.  Walker,  yet  I  may,  with  great  pro- 
priety, consider  him  in  the  light  of  a  Preceptor,  as-  well  as  a  Friend.  All  our  con- 
versations related  to  subjects  of  natural  science:  and  while  I,  at  that  time  a  mere 
uninstructed  tiro  in  natural  history,  could  do  little  more  than  communicate  an 
occasional  fact,  nothing  could  be  more  instructive  than  the  various  converse  of 
the  learned  and  amiable  Professor. 

*  See  Fragments  of  the  Natural  History  of  Pcnns\  !\  ania.  Part  I.  pages  1-10 
Philadelphia:  1799. 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY.  303 

SUPPLEMENT 

TO  THE  ARTICLE  CALENDARIUM  FLORA. 

The  following  specimen  of  the  Calendar  of  one  of  the  more 
cultivated  of  the  Indian  tvihes  of  the  great  tract  of  country  now  within 
the  limits  of  the  United-States,  will  not  he  deemed  incurious  or  un- 
important. 

The  Onondagos,  one  of  the  Six-Nations,  whose  chief  residence 
ever  since  the  arrival  of  the  Europeans  in  this  country,  has  been 
in  the  state  of  New-York,  divide  the  year  into  twelve  months,  and 
begin  their  year  with  December*.  The  names  of  the  months  are  as 
follow:  viz. 

Che-t6-re.  December:  "the  cool  month." 

CiiK-Tu-KK-Ko-xAHt.         January:  "  the  cold  month." 

*  The  Onondaga  year  does,  certainly,  consist  of  twelve  months;  and  these 
months,  I  am  pretty  certain,  are  lunar'.  In  the  language  of  l^iis  U-ibe  of  the  Con- 
federacy, a  month  is  called  IVeiglmeeta,  which  is  die  name  the  Oneidas,  who  are 
close  neighbours  of  die  Onondagos,  and  who  speak  a  near  dialect  of  die  same 
language,  give  to  the  Moon- — I  do  not  mean,  however,  to  assert,  that  die  Indian 
months,  which  I  have  mentioned,  exactly  correspond  to  the  months  of  our  calen- 
dar.—On  the  subject  of  the  manner  of  dividing  time  among  the  Indians  (as  well 
the  rude  as  more  cultivated)  of  North-America,  I  have  collected  some  important 
information,  which  I  shall  communicate  to  die  public,  at  a  future  period.  At  pre- 
sent, I  shall  only  observe,  that  from  die  neat  and  simple  Calendar  of  the  Onon- 
dagos, it  is  easy  to  perceive,  that  they  were  more  of  an  agricultural  people  than 
many  of  the  other  American  tribes;  than  those,  perhaps,  who  had  a  "  Herring- 
month,"  a  "  Sturgeon-month,"  and  a  "  Reaver-month,"  in  their  enumeration  of 
the  year.  See  page  299.  And  the  Six-Nations,  of  whom  the  Onondagos  formed  a 
part,  and  a  noble  part,  were,  it  is  known,  much  more  attached  to  the  cultivation 
of  the  earth,  tiian  the  Dclawarcs,  and  many  other  tribes. — From  this  Calendar,  it 
is  also  natural  to  infer,  that  the  Onondagos  have,  for  a  very  considerable  length 
of  time, — for  several  centuries  at  least, — been  settled  nearly  in  die  same  tract  of 
countrv,  or  upon  die  same  parallel  of  latitude, — in  which  they  now  reside.  If,  as 
I  suppose,  they  came  from  the  south-west,  diey  must  have  altered,  and  accom- 
modated, their  calendar  to  the  more  northern  regions  of  which  they  took  pos- 
session.— The  Mexicans,  we  arc  informed,  made  a  considerable  change  in  their 
calendar,  when,  migrating  from  the  northern  Atzlan,  they  seated  themselves  in 
the  milder  and  more  southern,  and  more  happy  clime,  of  Anahuac. 

f  The  moaning  of  Konah  seems  to  be,  "  in  reality,"  or  "  in  great  earnest." 


304 


ELEMENTS  OF  BOTANY. 


TlS-SAH. 
TlS-9AH-K0-NAH. 

k.one-la-toch-ah. 

k.one-la-toch-ko-nah. 

Ee-set-ah. 

Ee-ra-ko-nah. 
hus-hess-ko-hah. 

KoS-HESS-KO-HAH. 

Kan-tah-haA 
Kan-tah-hah-ko-nah. 


February:  "  the  snow  is  beginning  to  pass 
away." 

March:  "  the  snow  is  now  gone  in  reality;" 
or  is  fast  going. 

April:  "  the  Bud-month;"  or  the  trees  begin 
to  leaf. — Frondescentia. — Set;  p.  63. 

May:  "  the  Leaf-month;"  the  leaves  being 
fully  out. 

June:  "  the  Corn-month;"  the  Mays,  or  In- 
dian-corn, being  come  up;  and  fit  for  the 
first  dressing. 

July:  "  the  Corn  is  up  in  full,"  and  fit  to  re- 
ceive its  second  dressing. 

August:  "the  Corn  is  making  its  heads;"  or 
ears. 

September:  the  month  when  "the  car  is  full," 
or  fit  for  boiling. 

October:  the  month  when  "vegetation  begins 
to  fall  away;"  being  affected  by  the  frost. 
— It  may  be  called  the  month  of  Defo- 
liation.— See  pages  64  and  65. 

November:  the  month  when  the  "vegetation 
is  chiefly  fallen  down;"  having  been  killed 
by  the  frost. — Evergreens  (see  page  65), 
of  which  the  number  of  species  in  the 
country  of  the  Six-Nntions,  is  very  con- 
siderable,— such  as  Pinus,  Larix,  Abies, 
Thuja,  Cupressus,  not  to  mention  the 
smaller,  but  yet  conspicuous,  Tuxus, 
Rhododendron,  Kalmia,  and  many  oth- 
ers,— arc,  doubtless,  intended  to  be  ex- 
cepted from  the  observation,  which  is 
exclusively  restricted  to  deciduous  vege- 
tables, and  chiefly  those  of  an  arbores- 
cent stature. 


ADDITIONAL 
NOTES  AND  ILLUSTRATIONS 

TO  THE  FIRST  PART. 


Page  18.  "  IT  is  highly  probable,  that,  in  many  instances, 
parasitic  plants  injure  their  supporters,  more  by  emitting  from 
their  bodies  some  noxious  fluid,  than  by  absorbing  wholesome 
fluids  from  the  supports."  Actual  experiments,  however,  made 
with  some  of  the  parasitic  plants,  have  very  satisfactorily  proved, 
that  these  plants  derive  a  considerable  portion  of  their  nourish- 
ment from  the  vegetables  which  support  them.  The  stem,  the 
leaves,  &c,  of  the  Missletoe  may  be  beautifully  coloured  by  di- 
luted Poke  juice,  and  other  colouring  matters,  through  the  medi- 
um of  the  branches  of  the  Apple,  the  Gum  (Nyssa),  or  other 
tree,  from  which  the  parasite  proceeds.  In  this  experiment,  the 
Missletoe  is  not  brought  into  immediate  contact  with  the  colour- 
ing juice:  it  becomes  painted,  if  I  may  use  the  expression,  by  the 
juice  which,  having  been  previously  absorbed  by  the  stock,  is 
from  this  taken  up  by  the  radicles  of  the  parasite,  which  are 
intimately  intermixed  with  the  woody  part  of  the  supporting 
vegetable. 

The  Tillandsia  usneoides,  or  Long-Moss,  is  only  found,  in 
a  vigorous  state,  upon  living  vegetables;  and  it  is  never  seen 
alive  upon  trees  which  have  been  dead  more  than  one  season. 
This  fact  plainly  shows,  that  the  Tillandsia  derives  a  large  share 
of  its  nutriment  from  the  vegetables  upon  which  it  grows. 

There  can  be  very  little  doubt,  however,  that  some  parasitic 
plants  derive  a  large,  if  not  the  principal,  part  of  their  nourish- 


306  NOTES. 

ment  from  the  atmosphere.  This  is,  probably,  the  case  with  the 
wonderful  Aerides  odorata,  of  which  Father  Loureiro  has  given 
an  account.  This  vegetable,  which  Willdenow  calls  Epidendrum 
flos  aeris,  is  a  native  of  the  woods  of  Cochinchina  and  of  China. 
It  adheres  to  the  trees,  bv  means  of  a  great  number  of  long,  lin- 
ear, radical  bulbs,  from  which  it  might  be  conceived  to  derive  its 
nourishment,  if  Loureiro  did  not  inform  us,  that  when  brought 
out  of  the  woods,  and  hung  up  in  the  house,  without  having  any 
connection  with  the  earth  or  water,  it  continues,  in  this  situation, 
during  many  years,  to  grow,  to  flower,  and  to  germinate,  exhal- 
ing a  delightful  odour.  I  shall  quote  the  author's  own  words,  as 
the  book  in  which  the  fact  is  related,  is  probably  in  the  hands  of 
but  few  of  my  countrymen.  "  Mirabilis  hujus  plant*  proprietas 
est,  quod  ex  sylvis  domum  delata,  et  in  aere  libero  suspensa,  ab- 
sque ullo  pabulo  vegetabili  terreo,  vel  aqueo  in  multos  annos  du- 
ret,  crescat,  floreat,  et  germinet.  Yix  crederem,  nisi  diuturna 
experientia  comprobassem*." 

Page  24.  To  the  terminology  of  caulis,  I  beg  leave  to  add, 
caulis  jloriferus,  a  flower-bearing  stem.  We  have  a  fine  example 
of  this  in  the  beautiful  Cercis  canadensis,  or  Canadian  Salad-tree*' 
called  also  Shad-blossom.  The  trunk,  as  well  as  branches,  is  co- 
vered over  with  tufts  of  the  rose-coloured  blossoms:  a  circum- 
stance which  adds  much  to  the  beauty  of  the  tree,  especially  as 
its  leaves  do  not  make  their  appearance  until  the  flowers  have 
begun  to  fade  or  disappear. 

Pages  25,  26.  "  The  culm  sometimes  consists  of  a  number  of 
scales,  which  lie  over  each  other,  in  the  manner  of  tiles  upon  a 
house." — I  think  it  has  not  yet  been  ascertained  what  culm,  if 
any  such  exist,  Linnaeus  here  alludes  to.  A  admits  imbricatus  is 
unknown  to  the  botanists.  It  is  possible,  that  Linnauis  had  his 
eye  upon  some  figure  of  the  stem  of  a  Palm. 

Pages  26,  27.  Linn^us  has  observed,  that  the  "  scapus  is  only 

*  Flora  Cochinchiiiensis:  sistens  plantas  in  regno  Cochinchina  nascentes,  &c- 
labore  ac  studio  Joannis  dc  Loureiro,  &c.  torn.  ii.  p.  525.  Ulyssipone:  1790.  4to- 


NOTES.  307 

a  species  of  pcdunculus."  "  The  term,  says  Dr.  Smith,  might 
therefore  be  spared,  were  it  not  found  very  commodious  in  con- 
structing neat  specific  definitions  of  plants.  If  abolished,  Pedun- 
culus  radicalism  or  radical  flower-stalk,  should  be  substituted*." 

I  cannot  agree  in  sentiment  with  Linnaeus  and  Dr.  Smith. 
The  term  scapus  cannot  well  be  spared:  its  origin  emphatically 
distinguishes  it  from  the  pedunculus,  with  which,  in  describing 
plants,  it  ought  never  to  be  confounded. 

A  physiological  circumstance  concerning  the  scape  de- 
serves to  be  mentioned  here.  The  Swedish  naturalist  thought, 
w  that  a  plant  could  not  be  increased  by  its  scapus."  But  Dr. 
Smith  "  has  had  scaly  buds  form  even  on  the  flower-stalk  (sca- 
pus) of  Lachenalia  tricolor,  Curt,  Mag.  t.  82.,  whilst  lying  for 
many  weeks  between  papers  to  dry,  which,  on  being  put  into  the 
ground,  have  become  perfect  plants,  though  of  slow  growth." 
Introduction,  &c.  page  112.  Is  the  true  pedunculus  capable  of 
continuing  a  plant?  I  have  not  determined  the  point  by  actual 
experiment:  but  I  have  little  doubt,  that  the  peduncles  of  many 
plants,  as  well  as  the  scape  of  Lachenalia,  is  capable  of  forming 
buds,  or  bulbs  (propagines),  from  which  a  plant  similar  to  the 
parent,  may  be  evolved. 

Page  28.  Willdenow  has  totally  omitted  from  in  his  list  of 
stems,  or  trunks.  I  think  this  is  right.  He  retains  stipes:  and  he 
thinks  proper  to  consider  the  pedunculus  and  the  petiolus  as  spe- 
cies of  stems.  So  does  Smith. — The  first  of  these  writers  restricts 
the  term  caulis  to  the  herbaceous  vegetables:  and  he  employs 
truncus  to  designate  the  stem  of  the  trees  and  shrubs.  His  trun- 
cus  is  two-fold:  viz.  1.  truncus  arbor eus,  that  has  a  crown  of 
branches  at  top:  and  2.  t.  fruticosus,  that  has  branches  also  be- 
low. I  am  not  confident  that  this  distinction  is  of  much  conse- 
quence. 

Mr.  Willdenow  adds  two  species  of  stem  to  the  list:  viz. 
Surculus,  and  Seta* 

'  Introduction,  8cc.  page  1 


308  NOTES. 

1.  The  Surculus,  or  Shoot,  is  the  stem  which  bears  the  leaves 
of  the  mosses.  This  is  either,  1.  simplex,  simple;  having  no 
branches,  as  in  Polytrichum:  see  our  Plate  xxxi.  2.  ra?nosus, 
branched;  dividing  into  branches,  as  in  Mnium  androgynum.  3. 
ramis  defiexis,  with  hanging  branches;  when  the  stem  is  branch- 
ed, but  all  the  branches  hang  down,  as  in  Sphagnum  palustre.  4. 
decumbetiSj  decumbent;  that  lies  on  the  ground.  5.  repens,  creep- 
ing: and,  6.  erectus,  upright. 

2.  The  Seta,  or  Bristle,  is  that  species  of  stem,  which  in  the 
mosses  supports  only  the  fructification,  without  leavesf.  It  is 
always  simple,  and  never  branched,  as  in  the  preceding  species. 
The  seta  is  sometimes,  \..solitaria,  solitary.  2.  aggregata,  ag- 
gregate; or  crowded.  3.  terminalis,  terminal;  on  the  point:  or,  4. 
axillaris,  vel  lateralis,  on  the  side. 

Pages  40,  41.  For  as  in  different  species  of  Xymphaea,  ike, 
ending  or  Map-apple,  read,  as  in  the  majestic  Neluinbo  lutea, 
which  adorns  some  of  the  wet  meadows  in  the  vicinitv  of  Phila- 
delphia; in  the  Tropaeolum,  or  Indian-cress;  in  the  Geranium 
peltatum;  the  Podophyllum  peltatum,  or  May-apple;  the  Hydro- 
peltis  purpurea  (See  Plate  xxxii.  Fig.  12.)  the  Diphylleia  cvmosa, 
figured  by  Michaux,  Flor.  bor.  amcr.  torn.  i.  tab.  19,  20.,  and  in 
many  others.  2*.  A  leaf  is  said  to  be  ccntio-peltate, yi/i///;z  ctntro- 
peltatum,  when  the  foot-stalk  is  inserted  directly,  or  nearlv,  in 
the  centre  of  the  leaf,  as  in  the  Nelumbo  and  Ilydropeltis,  just 
mentioned. 

Page  41.  For  as  in  many  Grasses,  Polygonum,  Ilumex,  &c, 
read  as  in  many  Grasses,  in  Polygonum,  and  not  a  few  of  the 
plants  belonging  to  the  family  of  the  Orchidesi:. 

\  It  may  be  said  to  be  the  scapus  of  the  mosses.  See  Plates  xxx  and  xxxi. 

i  Among  the  number  of  fulcra,  or  props,  Mr.  Willdenow  enumerates  the 
Vagina,  or  Sheath:  this  he  defines  "the  prolongation  of  a  leaf,  which  >olls  it- 
self round  the  sicm,  and  thus  forms  a  cylinder,  to  tbe  opening-  of  which  the  leaf 
is  attached,  as  in  Polygonum,  and  all  the  Grasses."  Principles,  &.c.  page  49. 


NOTES.  309 

Page  51.  One  of  the  earliest  opinions  which  seem  to  have 
been  advanced  by  the  naturalists  concerning  the  uses  of  the 
leaves  of  vegetables,  is  that  of  Andreas  Caesalpitius.  In  his 
work  Be  Planlis,  first  published  in  1583,  this  celebrated  man, 
to  whom  both  natural  history  and  medicine  are  indebted  for 
the  discovery  or  promulgation  of  many  important  truths,  im- 
agined, that  the  leaves  were  merely  a  kind  of  clothing,  or  a 
protection  of  the  vegetable  against  the  influence  of  cold  and 
wet.  The  Italian  philosopher  supposed,  that  the  solar  influence 
being  weakened  in  its  passage  through  the  leaves,  was  thus 
prevented  from  acting  with  so  much  violence  as  it  otherwise 
would,  upon  the  fruit  and  young  buds.  "Accordingly,  he  ob- 
serves, many  trees  lose  their  leaves  in  autumn,  when  their 
fruits  are  perfected,  and  their  buds  hardened,  while  such  as 
retain  the  fruit  long,  keep  also  their  leaves;  even  till  a  new 
crop  is  pWduced,  and  longer,  as  in  the  Fir,  the  Arbutus,  and 
the  Bay.  It  is  reported,  he  adds,  that  in  hot  climates,  where 
there  is  almost  perpetually  a  burning  sun,  scarcely  any  trees 
lose  their  leaves,  because  they  require  them  for  shade." 

There  is,  unquestionably,  some  foundation  for  these  ob- 
servations; and  in  particular,  I  think,  for  that  part  of  the  the- 
ory which  ascribes  to  the  leaves  a  protecting  power  from  the 
influence  of  the  sun's  rays.  It  would  not  however,  if  I  mistake 
not,  be  difficult  to  mention  a  considerable  number  of  trees 
which  lose  their  leaves  even  in,  or  near,  the  torrid  zone.  On 
the  other  hand,  many  trees  and  shrubs  drop  their  leaves  be- 
fore the  winter  season,  though  their  fruit  is  not  yet  perfected; 
and  consequently  it  is  exposed  to  all  the  rigours  of  a  cold  cli- 
mate. This  is  the  case  with  many  North-American  Oaks,  with 
the  Franklinia  Americana,  the  Gordonia  Lasianthus,  Hama- 
melis  Communis,  and  many  others,  which  "require  an  entire 
year  to  bring  their  fruits  to  perfection.* 

*  Some  vegetables  bear  tbe  loss  of  their  leaves,  by  whatever  means  ef- 
fected, tolerably  well.  This  is  especially  the  case  with  the  White  Mulberry 
(Morus  alba),  the  leaves  of  which  may  be  repeatedly  plucked  by  the  hand, 
in  the  coufse  of  the  same  year:  and  we  often  see,  in  Pennsylvania,  a  third, 
and  sometimes  a  fourth,  crop  of  leaves  upon  our  Elms,  in  consequence  of 
the  depredations  of  the  pernicious  little  coleopterous  insect,  which  proves 
so  destructive  to  them  in  our  streets,  gardens,  &c.  .    S  S 


310  NOTES. 

Page  52.  The  quantity  of  perspirable  matter  which  is  thrown 
off  from  some  plants,  and  especially,  perhaps,  from  their  leaves, 
is  almost  incredible.  If  we  may  belieye  Dr.  Hales,  the  great 
annual  Sunflower  (Helianthus  anmius),  that  magnificent  vege- 
table, which  was  cultivated  by  the  Indians  of  America,  from 
Peru  to  the  great  lakes  of  Canada; — if  we  may  depend  upon 
Hales,  the  Sunflower,  perspires  about  seventeen  times  as  fast 
as  the. human  skin,  in  its  ordinary  functions  of  perspiration. 
Another  vegetable  remarkable  for  the  rapidity  and  greatness  of 
its  perspiration,  is  the  beautiful  Hydrangea  Hortensia,  now  so 
common  in  the  United  States,  where  it  stands  even  the  rigours 
of  our  winters:  in  Pennsylvania  ut  least.  Some  species  of  Rose 
also  perspire  very  largely.*  But  it  has  been  thought,  that  hard- 
ly any  plant  performs  the  function  of  perspiration  so  extensively 
as  the  Cornus  mascula,  or -Cornelian  Cherry.  According  to  Du 
Ilamel,  the  quantity  of  fluid  which  is  evaporated  by  theleaves  of 
this  vegetable,  in  twenty-seven  hours,  is  almost  equal  to  twice 
the  weight  of  the  whole  plant.f  Is  the  perspiration  of  the  North 
American  species  (which  are  numerous)  of  the  genus  Cornus, 
peculiarly  great? 

The  matter  of  perspiration  of  plants,  is  very  various  in  dif- 
ferent genera  and  species.  Sometimes,  it  may  be  considered  as 
a  mere  insipid  water.  We  have  seen  this  perspiration  in  the 
"Weeping  Willows  (Salix  babvlonica)  of  Philadelphia t  to  such 
a  degree,  that  the  brick  pavements  have  been  wetted  by  fhem, 
as  though  by  a  shower  of  rain.  The  leaves  of  Orange-trees 
sometimes  perspire  a  saccharine  matter,  and  so  do  some  Sola- 
naceous  plants.  Cistus  creticus,  of  the  Greek-islands,  perspires 
a  resinous  matter,  the  Labdauum  of  the  shops4  which  is  col- 
lected by  beating  the  shrub  by  means  of  leather  straps.§  Dic- 
tamnus  albus,  called  Fraxinella,  exhales  an  inflammable  Vapour, 
which  catches  fire  when  a  taper  is  applied  to  it* 

*  Rosa. 

f  Pliisique  des  Arbres,  &c.  torn.  i.  p.  1-15. 

*  See  Part  III.  page  69.  * 

§  See  Tournefort's  Voyage  to  the  Levant.  English  translation,  vol.  i.  p. 
79—82.  London:  1741. 


NOTES.  311 

i  The  leaves,  as  well  as  the  fruit  of  many  vegetables,  perspire, 
or  perhaps  more  properly  secrete,  a  waxy  matter,  which  may 
easily  be  discovered  upon  their  surface.  The  fine  glaucous  co- 
vering of  many  Plumbs,  and  other  fruits,  is  certainly  of  this 
nature. 

The  perspiration  of  plants,  like  that  of  animals,  is  influenced 
by  a  variety  ol  circumstances,  a  few  only  of  which  I  shall  men- 
tion here:  vizv  different  conditions  of  the  atmosphere;  not  only 
in  regard  to  heat  and  cold,  dryness  and^noisture,  but  also,  if  I 
mistake  not,  a  greater  or  lesser  degree  of  electricity.  Plants 
perspire  more  or  less,  according  to  their  state  of  vigour,  as  wef 
daily  observe  in  the  management  of  our  flower-pots.  Lastly, 
the  perspiration  of  plants  is  essentially  increased  by  subjecting 
them  to  the  influence  of  stimulating  agents,  such  as  camphor, 
nitre,  and  the.  like,  as  I  have  had  particular  occasion  to  observe 
in  regard  to  the  Liriodendron  Tulipifcra,  &c — See  Transac- 
tions of  the  American  Philosophical  Society,  vol..  4. 

It  is  a  circumstance  not  unworthy  of  being  mentioned,  in  an 
history  of  the  real  and  supposed  uses  of-  the  leaves,  that  many 
savage  nations  seem  to  consider  these  organs  as  the  hairs  of 
vegetables;  at  least  of  trees  and  shrubs.  The  Muskohge,  or 
Creek-Indians,  call  the  leaf  Ito-esse,  which  is  literally  "  the 
hair  of  the  tree:"  and  nearly  the  same  idea  prevails  among 
certain  Indians  of  South  America,  and  the  West  India  islands. 
Thus  the  Caraibees  gave  the  same  name,  viz.  Toubanna,  to  a 
leaf  and  a  feather. 

Page  65.  The  various  colours  which  the  leaves  of  vegetables 
assume  in  the  autumn,  prior  to  their  fall,  have  been  supposed  by 
some  eminent  chemists,  to  depend  upon  the  absorption  of  oxy- 
gen. How  far  is  this  hypothesis  well  founded?  Are  the  autumnal 
colours  of  the  same  species  of  vegetable,  inhabiting  different 
portions  of  the.  globe,  in  nearly  the  same  parallel  of  latitude, 
the  same?  Laurus  Sassafras  is  said  to  inhabit  Cochinchina; 
Juglans  nigra  and  Bignonia  Catalpa,  Japan. 

Tage  66.  It  has  been  very  justly  observed,  that  some  vege- 


Sl£  NOTES. 

tables  are  by  their  very  nature,  or  the  structure  of  their  parts., 
perdifoils,  or  deciduous.  This  is  the  case  with  the  two  species  of 
Platanus,  or  Plane-tree,  that  are  now  known  to  us.  Thus  in  the 
Platanus  occidentalis,  one  of  the  most  majestic  and  common  of 
the  North  American  trees,  the  buds  are  concealed  in  the  end  of 
the  petiole,  and  as  they  increase  in  size,  they  unavoidably  force 
off  the  leaf,  the  petiole  of  which  is  now  dilated  at  its  origin,  as- 
suming a  funnel-like  appearance.  In  this  funnel  or  cavity,  the 
bud  was  concealed.  This  Platanus  (called  in  the  United  States 
Button-wood,  or  B.  tfte*  Sycamore,  and  Water-Beach)  is  by 
^his  structure  of  its  buds,  absolutely  a  perdifoil.  The  leaves  fall 
off  in  the  latter  end  of  October,  at  which'  time  we  sometimes 
find  the  cavity  at  the  end  of  the  petiole,  large  enough  to  admit 
the  end  of  the  little  finger:  and  it  is  almost  impossible  to  see  a 
single  leaf  remaining  upon  any  of  these  trees  in  the  winter- 
season.  The  same  structure  of  the  petiole  occurs  in  other  vege- 
tables, which,  for  the  same  reason,  are  perdifoils;;  such  as  the 
Virgilia,  or  Yellow-wood,  a  tree  of  Tennessee,  and  other 
western  parts  of  North  America.  In  different  species  of  Rhus, 
or  Sumach,  the  fall  of  .the  leaf  is  not  so  determinate,  though 
here  also  the  nascent  bud  presses  upon  the  petiole.  But  in  the 
Sumach,  the  pressure  of  the  bud  is  oblique;  and  consequently 
the  petiole  is  not  so  readily  forced  off. 

Page  85.  According  to  Mr.  Willdenow,  the  thorn  "  arises 
most  generally  from  an  incompletely  evolved  bud,  which  has 
began  to  form  itself,  but  wanting  a  proper  supply  of  nourish- 
ment, remains  otdy  in  form  of  a  very  short,  sharp,  and  bare 
twig.  It  is,  like  the  woody  stem  of  a  tree  or  shrub,  formed  of 
the  air  and  adducent  vessels,  which  have  grown  completely 
hard.  It  therefore  remains  fixed,  though  the  bark  be  taken  off." 
Principles,  &c.  p.  270,  271.  We  often  see  one  or  more  leaves 
proceeding  from  a  firm  and  rigid  thorn;  which,  in  process  of 
time,  becomes  a  flowering  branch.  Some  plants,  however,  hard- 
ly ever  part  with  their  thorn  entirely:  such  as  Buckthorn.  And 
I  have  not  yet  learned,  that  the  rigid  thorn  of  Gleditsia  tria- 
canthos  ever  becomes  a  frondose  stem.  Cultivation  never  con- 
verts a  prickle  into  a  shoot. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  PLATES 

ANNEXED  TO  THE  FIRST  VOLUME. 

.       WITH 

MISCELLANEOUS  FACTS  AND  OBSERVATIONS. 

PLATE  I. 

Fig.  1.  THE  principal  figure  on  this  plate  may  serve  to  il- 
lustrate the  xmth  class,  or  Polyandria,  and  the  first  order  of  the 
class,  or  Monogynia.  It  is  the  figure  of  the  Sarracenia  purpurea, 
or  Purple  Side-Saddle-flower:  known  also  by  the  names  of  Hol- 
low-leaved Lavendar,  Water  Brash,  &c.  I  have  already  made 
mention  of  this  very  singular  plant  in  former  parts  of  these  Ele- 
ments, see  pages  34,  87,  88.  [A.  Represents  one  of  the  hollow 
leaves,  (folium  tubulosum,  or  as  Willdenow  calls  it,  ascidiwn), 
cut  off  at  the  end.  B.  The  scape  (scapus),  supporting  the  flower, 
C.  D.  E.  F.  This  is  an  anterior  view  of  the  flower.  C.  E.  Two 
of  the  five  petals.  D.  One  of  the  leaves  of  the  superior  perianth 
(perianthium  superius).  F.  The  peltate  or  target-shaped  stigma 
(stigma  peltatuni).  G.  One  of  the  leaves  of  the  superior  perianth. 
H.  The  inferior  perianth,  which  consists  of  only  three  leaves 
(perianthium  inferius,  triphyllum),  whereas  the  superior  peri- 
anth is  pentaphyllous,  or  consists  of  five  leaves  (pentaphyllum). 
I.  A  scape  supporting  the  parts  of  the  flower  K.  L.  M. — K.  The 
receptacle  (receptaculum).  L.  The  germ  (germen).  M.  The  pel- 
tate stigma. 

The  plant  is  represented  nearly  of  its  natural  size;  though 
we  often  see  specimens  considerably  larger,  and  not  a  few  some- 

T  t 


314  EXPLANATION  OF  THE  PLATES. 

what  smaller.  The  drawing  is  correct,  and  will  convey  a  satis- 
factory idea  o£.the  plant,  which  is,  on  many  accounts,  one  of  the 
most  interesting  in  North- America. 

All  the  leaves  of  the  Sarracenia  purpurea  are  radical  (folia 
radicalia),  and  hollow,  each  forming  a  kind  of  funnel,  or  rather 
bottle,  the  form  of  which  will  be  better  understood  by  an  inspec- 
tion of  the  plate,  than  by  the  most  studied  description.  The 
young  leaves  are  quite  closed  at  the  top,  and  it  is  only  as  they 
advance  in  size  and  age,  that  they  become  pervious.  The  inside 
of  the  leaf  is  generally  beset  with  innumerable  fine  processes,  or 
seta?,  the  points  of  which  look  downzvards:  but  these  seta?  are 
principally  observed  about  the  upper  constricted  part  of  each 
leaf,  which  may  be  called  its  neck,  and  which  is  distinctly  visible 
in  the  two  principal  leaves,  on  the  right  and  left  of  the  drawing. 
The  use  of  these  setae  will  afterwards  be  hinted  at. 

The  Sarracenia  purpurea  is  never  found  in  uniformly  dry 
ground,  but  almost  always  in  boggy  ground,  and  sometimes  in 
ponds  of  water  of  some  depth.  In  this  latter  situation,  we  some- 
times find  it  with  its  roots  hanging  loose  in  the  water,  entirely 
unconnected  with  the  ground. 

Wherever  Ave  find  the  plant,  its  leaves  (the  older  ones)  al- 
most constantly  present  to  us  two  interesting  phenomena:  They 
contain  a  quantity  of  water, — and  this  even  in  the  dryest  weather, 
when  neither  rains  nor  visible  dews  have  fallen; — and  a  number 
of  insect9,  generally  small,  and  almost  always  dead.  It  is  these 
two  circumstances  which  render  the  Sarracenia  an  object  of  cu- 
riosity among  botanists,  and  especially  among  the  physiological 
botanists. 

What  is  the  use  of  this  structure  of  which  I  have  been 
speaking?  "Why  have  the  leaves  been  formed  hollow?  And  why 
do  we  so  generallv  find  insects  in  them?  I  shall  not  pretend  to 
give  satisfactory  answers  to  these  questions;  but  the  subject  is 
two  curious  not  to  demand  the  offering  of  a  conjecture. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  PLATES.  315 

I  formerly  imagined,  that  as  the  Sarracenia  is  destined  to 
grow  in  wet  places,  which,  however,  are  liable,  at  times,  to  be- 
come dearly  dry,  so  the  hollow  leaves,  or  ascidia,  are  intended 
to  serve  as  reservoirs  (Jiy dries)  of  water,  that  the  plant  may  not 
suffer  from  a  deficiency  of  its  favourite  and  most  indispensible 
aliment,  in  the  hotter  weather,  or  when  there  has  been  a  long- 
continued  drought*.  But  various  circumstances  induce  me  to  re- 
linquish this  idea:  for  the  younger  leaves,  to  whose  growth  and 
health  water  must  be  peculiarly  necessarv,  are,  as  I  have  already 
said,  impervious,  and  contain  no  water:  and,  again,  the  plant 
when  it  grows  in  the  water, — that  is  in  situations  not  liable  to 
become  dry, — and  where  of  course  it  cannot  stand  in  need  of  the 
apparatus  of  reservoirs;  I  say  the  ascidia,  even  in  this  situation, 
always  contain  a  portion  of  water.  These  circums'tances  alone 
would  almost  induce  me  to  relinquish  my  former  theory:  and  I 
mav  add,  that  the  Sarracenia  purpurea  is  much  less  frequently 
found  in  grounds,  even  occasionly  dry,  than  I  had  imagined.  I 
have  not  yet  made  the  experiment,  but  the  experiment  would  I 
think  show,  that  our  plant  would  flourish  very  well,  were  we  to 
close  the  openings  of  the  ascidia,  and  completely  prevent  them 
from  receiving  any  supply  of  water  from  external  sources. 

Mr.  Catesby  seems  to  have  formed  to  himself  an  hypothesis 
of  the  use  of  the  hollow  leaves  of  the  Sarracenia.  Speaking  of 
Sarracenia  purpurea,  he  says,  u  The  hollow  of  these  leaves,  as 
well  as  of  the  other  kind  (Sarracenia  flava),  always  retain  some 
water;  and  seem  to  serve  as  an  asylum  or  secure  retreat  for  nu- 
merous insects,  from  frogs  and  other  animals,  which  feed  on 
themt." 

As  the  insects  which  are  observed  in  the  hollow  leaves,  or 
bottles,  of  these  plants,  are  very  generally  found  dead,  we  can 
scarcely  call  them  "  secure  retreats."     Not  are  the  leaves  too 

■  This  appears  to  have  been  the  opinion  of  Lmnxus. 

f  The  Natural  History  of  Carolina,  Florida,  and  (lie  Bahama  Islands,  &c 
Vol.  ii.  page  70.  tab.  70. 


316  EXPLANATION  OF  THE  PLATES. 

small  to  prevent  some  of  the  smaller  frogs,  should  they  think 
proper,  from  making  their  way  into  them.  Indeed,  if  I  do  not 
mistake,  the  American  tree-frog  (Hyla  americana)  is  not  unfre- 
quently  found  in  these  leaves. 

But  the  following  fact  plainly  proves,  that  the  insects  that 
have  taken  up  their  residence  in  the  ascidia  are  by  no  means 
safely  protected  from  the  attacks  of  certain  animals. 

Sarracenia  variolaris  of  Michaux  (Flor.  bor.  amer.  torn.  i. 
p.  310.)  is  furnished  with  tubular  leaves,  like  the  other  species 
of  the  genus.  The  leaves  of  this  species,  which  is  a  native  of  the 
swamps  of  Georgia  and  Carolina,  contain  great  numbers  of  in- 
sects. The  fact  is  not  unknown  to  various  species  of  birds,  espe- 
cially to  the  Brown  Thrush,  or  French  Mocking-Bird  (Turdus 
rufus),  and  other  birds  belonging  to  this  and  other  genera  of  the 
order  of  the  passeres.  It  is  common  to  see  numbers  of  these 
birds  collecting  about  the  Sarracenia,  with  no  other  blown  view 
than  to  procure  the  imprisoned  insects.  They  pick  holes  in  the 
leaves,  and  then  slit  them  for  some  distance,  and  thus  readily 
obtain  their  prey.  They  cannot  obtain  their  prey  through  the 
mouths  of  the  ascidia*. 

This  fact  is  well  attested.  Nor  will  it  be  deemed  one  of  the 
least  interesting  in  the  history  of  the  instincts  of  the  class  of  birds! 
Although  I  have  not,  hitherto,  learned,  with  any  certainty,  that 
birds  in  like  manner  frequent  and  dissect  the  leaves  of  other  spe- 
cies of  Sarracenia,  besides  Sarracenia  variolaris,  I  have  no  doubt 
that  all  the  other  species  of  the  genus,  are  in  like  manner  visited 
and  treated:  and  when  we  consider  the  great  capacity  of  the 
leaves  of  Sarracenia  flava,  S.  purpurea,  &c,  and  the  multitude 
of  insects  which  they  often  contain,  we  may,  with  great  propriety, 
call  them  store-houses  of  the  food  of  birds. 


*  In  like  manner  bees  which  cannot  procure  the  honey  through  the  mouths 
of  various  tubular  corollas,  slit  the  tubes,  and  thus  obtain  the  honey.  This  is  the 
case  with  Azalea  nudiflora,  A.  viscosa,  Stc. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  PLATES.  317 

Future  observations  will,  no  doubt,  show  us,  that  different 
species  of  Nepenthes,  the  Aquarium  sitiens,  and  other  similar 
plants,  are,  in  like  manner,  subservient  to  the  nourishment  and 
support  of  birds.  But  I  do  not  mean  to  insinuate,  that  these 
various  plants  were  furnished  with  hollow  leaves,  merely  to 
satiate  the  appetite  of  birds:  and  yet  I  could  as  soon  believe 
this,  as  agree,  with  a  certain  learned  botanist,  from  whom  I  am 
often  compelled  to  differ  in  sentiment,  that  the  nectar  of  plants 
is  of  no  other  use  to  them,  than  in  so  far  as  it  may  tempt  insects 
to  assist  the  impregnation  of  plants*. 

The  same  author  seems  to  fancy,  that  he  has  discovered  the 
final  cause  of  this  singular  construction  in  the  leaves  of  our 
Sarracenia.  As  the  subject  is  certainly  very  curious,  I  shall  de- 
vote some  attention  to  it,  reserving,  however,  a  more  ample  in- 
vestigation for  a  monographia  of  the  genus  Sarracenia. 

After  observing,  that  "  Linnaeus  conceived  this  plant  to  be 
allied  in  constitution  to  Nymphaea,  and  consequently  to  require 
a  more  than  ordinaiy  supply  of  water,  which  its  leaves  were 
calculated  to  catch,  and  to  retain,  so  as  to  enable  it  to  live  without 
being  immersed  in  a  river  or  pond;"  and  after  observing,  that 
"  the  consideration  of  some  other  species  renders  this  hypothesis 
very  doubtful;"  Sarracenia  flava,  and  more  especially  Sarracenia 
adunca,  Exot.  Bot.  t.  53,  being  "  so  constructed  that  rain  is 
nearly  excluded  from  the  hollow  of  their  leaves,  and  yet  that 
part  retains  water,  which  seems  to  be  secreted  by  the  base  of 
each  leaf," — what  then  (says  the  respectable  President  of  the 
English  Linnean  Society)  is  the  purpose  of  this  unusual  con- 
trivance? An  observation  communicated  to  me  two  years  ago, 
in  the  botanic  garden  at  Liverpool,  seems  to  unravel  the  mystery. 
An  insect  of  the  Sphex  or  Ichneumon  kind,  as  far  as  1  could 
learn  from  description,  was  seen  by  one  of  the  gardeners  to  drag 

*  See  page  153. — The  same  author  says,  "  There  can  be  no  doubt, — !  !  no 
doubt ! ! — "  that  the  sole  use  of  the  honey  with  respect  to  the  plant,  is  to  tempt 
"  insects,  who  in  procuring  it  fertilize  the  flower,  by  disturbing  the  dust  of  the 
■  stamens,  and  even  carry  that  substance  from  die  barren  to  the  fertile  bios- 
"  soms."  Introduction,  Ike.  page  270. 


318  EXPLANATION  OF  THE  PLATES. 

several  large  flies  to  the  Sarracenia  adunca,  and,  with  some  dif- 
ficulty, forcing  them  under  the  lid  or  cover  of  its  leaf,  to  deposit 
them  in  the  tubular  part,  which  was  half  filled  with  water.  All 
the  leaves,  on  being  examined,  were  found  crammed  with  dead 
or  drowning  flies.  The  S.  purpurea  is  usually  observed  to  be 
stored  with  putrefying  insects,  whose  scent  is  perceptible  as 
we  pass  the  plant  in  a  garden;  for  the  margin  of  its  leaves  is 
beset  with  inverted  hairs,  which,  like  the  wires  of  a  mouse-trap, 
render  it  very  difficult  for  any  unfortunate  fly,  that  has  fallen  into 
the  watery  tube,  to  crawl  out  again.  Probably  the  air  evolved  by 
these  dead  flies  may  be  beneficial  to  vegetation,  and,  as  far  as  the 
plant  is  concerned,  its  curious  construction  may  be  designed  to 
entrap  them,  while  the  water  is  designed  to  tempt  as  well  as  to 
retain  them.  The  Sphex  or  Ichneumon,  an  insect  of  prey,  stores 
them  up  unquestionably  for  the  food  of  itself  or  its  progeny,  pro-  ■ 
bably  depositing  its  eggs  in  their  carcases,  as  others  of  the  same 
tribe  lay  their  eggs  in  various  caterpillars,  which  they  sometimes 
bury  afterwards  in  the  ground.  Thus  a  double  purpose  is  answer- 
ed; nor  is  it  the  least  curious  circumstance  of  the  whole,  that  an 
European  insect  should  find  out  an  American  plant  in  a  hot- 
house, in  order  to  fulfil  that  purpose. 

"  If  the  above  explanation  of  the  Sarracenia  be  admitted, 
that  of  the  Nepenthes  will  not  be  difficult.  Each  leaf  of  this  plant 
terminates  in  a  sort  of  close-shut  tube,  like  a  tankard,  holding  an 
ounce  or  two  of  water,  certainly  secreted  through  the  footstalk 
of  the  leaf,  whose  spiral-coated  vessels  are  uncommonly  large 
and  numerous.  The  lid  of  this  tube  either  opens  spontaneously, 
or  is  easily  lifted  up  by  insects  and  small  worms,  who  are  sup- 
posed to  resort  to  these  leaves  in  search  of  a  purer  beverage 
than  the  surrounding  swamps  afford.  Rumphius,  who  has  de- 
scribed and  figured  the  plant,  says,  "  various  little  worms  and 
insects  crawl  into  the  orifice,  and  die  in  the  tube,  except  a  cer- 
tain small  sqiiilla,  or  shrimp,  with  a  protuberant  back,  sometimes 
met  with,  which  lives  there*." — T  have  no  doubt  that  this  shrimp 
feeds  on  the  other  insects  and  worms,  and  that  the  same  purposes 

*  Sec,  also,  Pennant's  Outlines  of  the  Globe,  See.  Vol  i.  page  236.  plate  9. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  PLATES  319 

are  answered  in  this  instance  as  in  the  Sarraceniae.  Probably  the 
leaves  of  Dionsea  muscipula*,  as  well  as  of  the  Droserae,  Engl. 
hot.  U  867 — 869,  catch  insects  for  a  similar  reasonf." 


PLATE  II. 

Fig.  1.  The  bulb  (fatbits,  s.  radix  bidbosci)  of  the  beauti- 
ful Atamasco-Lily  (Amaryllis  Atamasco),  a  native  of  the  south- 
ern parts  of  the  LTnited-States.  A.  The  bulb.  B.  B.  Two 
offsets  or  suckers,  from  the  lower  end  of  the  bulb.  C.  The  ra- 
dicle (radkuld),  which  in  the  opinion  of  many  writers  is  the 
only  true  root  portion.  Fig.  2.  A  tranverse  section  of  the 
same  bulb,  intended  to  show  its  tunicated  or  coated  structure, 
a.  a.  b.  b.  Two  eyes,  or  places,  from  which  proceed  the  flow- 
ers, c.  The  radicle.  Fig.  3.  The  root  of  the  Fumaria  Cucul- 
laria,  commonly  called  Dutchman's  Breeches.  A.  A.  Two 
bulbs,  b.  b.  Small  succulent  scales,  protecting  the  lower  parts 
of  the  bulbs,  each  of  which  is  capable  of  becoming  a  perfect  plant. 
This  figure  may  be  said  to  represent  the  grumose  root  (radix 
grumosci).  Fig.  4.  The  fusiform  root  (radix  fuaiformis)  of  the 
Wild-Carrot  (Daucus  Carota).  A.  A.  The  main  body  of  the 
root,  or  descending  caudex,  in  the  language  of  Linnseus.  B.  B. 
Mark  the  commencement  of  the  ascending  caudex,  or  stem. 
Fig.  5.  The  stem  and  root  of  a  species  of  Orchis.  The  root 
may  be  called  a  palmated  root  (radix  palmetto).  A.  The  prin- 
cipal body  of  it.  B.  B.  The  smaller  succulent  portions.  C.  The 
ascending  caudex. 

Fig.  6.  The  Cymbidium  hyemale  of  Willdenowf,  com- 
monly called,  in  some  parts  of  the  United-States,  Adam  and 
Eve.     A.  B.  The  two  principal  bulbs,  constituting  what  Lin- 

*  Sec  Plate  vii,  in  vol.  ii. 

f  An  Introduction  to  Physiological  and  Systematical  Botany.  ByJarae 
waid  Smith,  M.  L).  F.  R.  S.  &c. 8tc.— Page  l'JJ— 198.  London:  1807 
-  Ophiys  byemalis.  Sec  page  10. 


320  EXPLANATION  OF  THE  PLATES. 

naeus  calls  the  bulbus  duplicatus,  s.  testiaclatus.  C.  C.  The 
smaller  more  fibrous-like  portions  of  the  root.  D.  The  ra- 
dicle. E.  The  plicated  or  folded  leaf  (folium  plication). 
Fig.  7.  The  root  and  a  portion  of  the  stem  of  the  beautiful  Li- 
modorum  tuberosum  of  Linnaeus  (Cymbidium  pule  helium  of 
Swartz),  which  grows  abundantly  in  the  neighbourhood  of  Phi- 
ladelphia. A.  A.  The  radicle.  B.  C.  Two  small  suckers. 
Fig.  8.  The  scaly  bulb  (bulbus  squamosus)  of  the  Lilium  super- 
bum.  A.  The  radicle.  B.  The  scaly  portion.  Fig.  9.  The 
root,  &c,  of  the  Devil's  Bit,  or  Veratrum  luteum  of  Linnaeus 
(Melanthium  dioicum?  of  Walter.)  It  is  a  good  example  of 
the  premorse,  or  abrupt  root  (radix  prcemorsd).  A.  The  ex- 
tremity of  the  root,  which  appears  as  if  it  had  been  off.  B.  The 
radicles.  C.  Portions  of  the  leaves,  which  are  all  radical  (folia 
radicalia),  in  this  plant.  Fig.  10.  The  granulated  root  (radix 
granulatd)  of  the  White  Saxifrage  (Saxifraga  granulata).  A.  A. 
Granules  of  the  root  attached  to  the  fibres,  or  radicles.  Fig.  11. 
The  horizontal  root  (radix  horizontalis)  of  the  May-apple  (Po- 
dophyllum peltatum).  A.  The  ascending,  caudex,  or  a  portion 
of  the  stem.  B.  B.  b.  b.  The  main  body  of  the  root,  as  it  creeps, 
or  spreads,  in  an  horizontal  direction,  under  the  ground.  C.  C.  C. 
Fibres  proceeding  from  the  main  root. — See  Plate  xvm. 

All  the  plants  that  are  referred  to  in  this  plate  are  natives 
of  the  United-States,  with  the  exception  of  the  White  Saxifra- 
ge, in  Fig.  10.     This  is  a  native  of  many  countries  in  Europe. 


PLATE  in. 

Fig.  1.  The  root  of  Tuberous  Moschatel  (Adoxa  Moscha- 
tellina.  A.  A  shoot  proceeding  from  the  i-oot.  B.  Continua- 
tion of  the  same.  This  is  a  species  of  tuberous  root.  See 
Part  1.  page  7. — Fig.  2.  Creeping  Crowfoot  (Ranunculus  re- 
pens).  A.  A.  The  stem.  B.  B.  radicles  proceeding  from  the 
bosom  of  the  leaves.  Fig.  3.  Common  Pilewort  (Ranunculus 
Ficaria).  A.  A.  The  stem.  B.  Bulbs  in  the  axils  (axillae)  of  the 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  PLATES.         320* 

leaves.  Fig.  4.  The  Common  Onion  (Allium  Cepa).  A.  Bulbs  in 
the  umbel  of  flowers. — See  Part  1.  page  93. — Fig.  5.  A  branch 
of  the  Cardamine  pratensis.  A.  A.  Radicles  shooting  out  from 
the  leaves.  Fig.  6.  A  species  of  Sheeps  Fescue-grass,  intended 
to  show  one  of  the  modes  by  which  plants  increase.  A.  A  vivi- 
parous shoot  proceeding  from  the  flower. — See  Part  1.  page  94. 
— Fig.  7.  The  strobile  (strobihis)  of  the  American*  Larch  (Pinus 
pendula  of  Aiton).  Fig.  8.  A  view  of  the  inner  side  of  one  of 
the  scales,  which  compose  the  strobile,  with  the  seed  attached 
to  it.  Fig.  9.  A  single,  detached  seed,  with  its  wing,  or  ala. 


Among  the  bulb-bearing  plants  of  the  United  States,  I  may 
mention  a  very  common  plant,  growing  in  marshy  situations, 
and  easily  procured  by  the  student  in  the  vicinity  of  Philadel- 
phia, &c,  where  it  flowers  in  June  and  July.  I  mean  the  Lysi- 
machia  bulbifera  of  Curtis,  Bot.  mag.  n.  104,  the  L.  stricta  of 
other  writers.f  The  bulbs,  which  are  placed  in  the  axils  of  the 
leaves,  are  attenuated  at  both  ends,  and  are  often  near  half  an 
inch  long.  By  these  gcmmcn  vivaces,  the  plant  is  readily  prop- 
agated. , 

A  stiw.  more  interesting  bulbiferous  plant,  is  a  beautiful 
species  of  Begonia,  from  China,  which  1  have  had,  in  my 
green-house,  for  some  years.  The  short  egg-shaped  bulbs  are 
axillary,  and  smooth  and  shining.  Even  in  the  green-house, 
the  leaves,  stem,  and  root,  perish;  but  in  the  winter,  and  espe- 
cially in  the  early  spring,  the  surface  of  the  pot,  is  found 
covered  over  with  the  bulbs,  which  rapidly  vegetate,  even  upon 
the  surface  of  the  earth. 


*  Larix  (americana)  foliis  brevioribus:  strobills  parvis,  ovoideo-subjrlo- 
bosis;  squamis  paucioribus.  Michaux,  Flora,  Jioreali-Jmericana.  torn.  ii.  203. 

|  Viscum  (tcrrestre)  caule  berbaceo  tetragono  brachiato,  foliis  lanceola- 
tis.  Linn.  Sp.  pi.  ii.  p.  1452.  Linnxus,  who  bad  no  opportunin  of  se  :ing  the 
fructification  of  this  common  American  plant,  bas  thrown  out  a  suspicion 
that  it  might  be  a  species  of  Lovanthus! 


521*         EXPLANATION  OF  THE  PLATES. 

Bryophyllum  calycinum  of  Salisbury  (Farad.  Lond.  } 
Cotyledon  rhizophylla  of  Roxburgh),  a  native  of  India,  vege- 
tates principally  by  the  little  bulbs,  which  are  placed  in  the 
crenatures  of  the  very  succulent  leaves.  These  bulbs  are  not 
to  be  discovered  by  the  naked  eye,  though  by  laying  the  leal 
upon  the  earth,  the  new  plant  is  observed  to  proceed  only  from 
the  crena.  By  placing  the  leaf  between  blotting  paper,  and 
keeping  it  there  for  some  time,  the  bulbs  are  disengaged,  and 
are  easily  seen.  The  plant  is  very  tender,  and  must  be  kept 
(in  Pennsylvania),  during  the  winter,  in  a  hot  house.  But 
during  the  summer  season,  even  in  the  open  air,  it  vegetates 
with  great  rapidity,  even  upon  the  most  arid  gravel  walks. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  PLATES.  321 

PLATE  IV. 

This  plate  is  entirely  appropriated  to  the  beautiful  American 
Painted-cup  (Bartsia  coccinea),  which  grows  abundantly  in  Penn- 
sylvania, and  many  other  parts  of  the  United-States.  A.  A.  A. 

A.  A.  A.  The  large  and  crimson  coloured  bractes  (bractex), 
which  are  much  more   painted    than  the   corolla,  or  the  calyx. 

B.  B.  B.  The  perianth.  C.  A  perianth.  D.  d.  The  corolla.  E.  A 
portion  of  a  corolla  turned  downwards,  to  show  the  four  stamens 
and  the  stvle.  F.  The  four  stamens,  two  of  which  are  longer 
than  the  other  two,  G.  The  pistil.  H.  The  pericarp,  wh'.ch  is  a 
capsule,  two  locular  or  celled  [capsula  hihcularis )  and  two  valved 
(bivahiti).  I.  The  capsule  opened,  with  the  contained  seed. 

This  Plate  may  serve  to  illustrate  the  class  of  Didynamia, 
and  the  order  of  x\ngiospermia. — See  Part  I.  pages  78 — 82. 


PLATE  V. 

A.  B.  C.  D.  F.  Representations  of  the  Common  Garden-Bean 
(Vicia  Fabaj.  A.  The  bean,  covered  with  its  husk  {cutis).  1.  The 
hilum,  scar,  or  eye.  2.  3.  The  umbilical  cord  funis  umbilicalis) 
by  which  the  bean  was  attached  to  the  scar,  and  to  the  legume, 
or  pod.  4.  The  small  foramen  or  hole,  through  which  a  part,  at 
least,  of  the  fluid  seems  to  enter  the  bean.  See  page  200.'  B.  The 
bean  deprived  of  its  husk.  1.  The  radicle.  C.  One  half  the  bean, 
or  a  single  cotyledon.  1.  The  husk.  2.  Vesst  Is.  3.  4.  The  eml  ryo. 
D.  The  husk.  1.  Showes  where  it  is  thickest.  2.  Shows  in  v.  hat 
manner  the  embryo  is  contained  within  the  duplicature  o  the 
husk.  F.  The  two  cotyledons,  showing  the  vascular  structure 
upon  their  surface.  1.  1.  2.  3.  The  embryo  or  corcule.  2.  The 
plumule  (plwnuln).  3.  The  ndidt(radicula).  E.  One  half  of  a  dry 

*  This  foramen  in  vegetables,  has  lately  received  the  name  of  ndenpyle, 

from  Mr.  Tupin,  an  ingenious  French  botanist,  and  most  accomplished  painter 

of  plants. 

S  S 


322  EXPLANATION  OF  THE  PLATES. 

Bean.  1.  The  radicle.  2.  The  duplicature.  3.  3.  The  cotyledons. 
G.  One  of  the  lobes  or  cotyledons  of  the  Kidney-Bean.  1.  The 
embryo.  H.  The  same  when  further  advanced  in  growth.  1.  The 
seminal  leaves  (folia  seminaliaj,  or  plumule  developed  into 
leaves.  2.  The  radicle.  I.  A  Kidney-Bean.  i.  Thehilum.  K.  The 
kernel  (nucleus)  of  the  Filbert-nut  (Corylus  Avellana).  L.  One  of 
the  lobes  of  the  same.  i.  The  embyro.  M.  The  seed  of  the  Com- 
mon Persimmon  (Diospyros  virginiana).  N.  One  of  the  lobes  of 
the  same,  with  the  embryo  of  its  natural  size.  O.  A  magnified 
view  of  the  same  embryo,  exhibiting  the  beautiful  vascular  struc- 
ture of  the  plumule.  See  Part  1.  pages  231,  233,  &c. 


PLATE  XXXII. 

This  plate  contains  representations  of  a  number  of  the  prin- 
cipal forms  of  Simple  leaves,  drawn  for  this  work  by  an  eminent 
artist*,  from  actual  specimens,  no  imaginary  forms  being  ad- 
mitied.  The  greater  number  of  the  vegetables  whose  leaves  are 
h^ie  represented,  are  natives  of  the  United-States:  all  those,  in- 
deed, of  whose  native  country  nothing  is  said. 

Fig.  1.  Folium  linear e:  Aster  linearifolius.  2.Jbl.  subulatum: 
Phascum  subulatum.  2>.fol.  lanceolatum:  Polygonum  Persicaria. 
4.  fol.  ellipticum:  Magnolia  glauca,  common  Magnolia,  or  Beaver- 
tree.  S.fol.  obovatum:  Arbutus  Uva  ursi.  6.fol.  cuneiforme:  Quer- 
cus  nigra.  N.  B.  This  is  the  true  Black- Oak,  or  Black- Jack,  of 
the  United-States,  and  must  not  be  confounded  with  Quercus 
tinctoria,  which  is  also  called  Black-Oak. — 7.  fol.  spathulatum: 
Polygala  lutea.  8.  fol.  am  turn:  Solidago  odora.  9.  fol.  acumina- 
tum: Cornus  alterna,  sen  alternifolia.  lO.fol.setaceo-acuminatum: 
Quercus  Phellos,  or  Willow-leaved  Oak.  11.  folium  orbiculatum: 
Glycine  tomentosa.  12.  fol.  peltatum:  Hydropeltis  purpurea  of 
Michaux:  see  page  308  of  this  work;  and  Ixodia  palustris  of 
Solander.  13.  fol.  perfoliatum:  Uvularia  perfolia".  14.  fol.  conna- 

*  Mr.  Rcdoute,  of  Paris. 


EXPLANATION  OF  THE  PLATES.  323 

turn:  Eupatorium  connatum  of  Michaux:  Eupatorium  perfora- 
tum of  Linnaeus,  \5.fol.  amplexicaule:  Conyza  amplexicaulis;  a 
native  of  the  East-Indies.  16.  fol.  auriculation:  Magnolia  auri- 
culata.  17.  fol.  cor  datum:  Pontederia  cordata.  IS.  fol.  obcorda- 
tum:  Oxalis  acetosella.  19.  fol.  emarginatum:  Astragalus  emar- 
ginatus;  a  native  of  the  East.  20.  fol.  reniforme:  Asarum  cana- 
dense.  21.  fol.  sagittatum:  Polygonum  sagittatum,  called  Tear- 
thumb,  and  Turkey-seed.  22.  fol.  hastatum:  Polygonum  hastatum. 
23.  fol.  deltoides:  Populus  nigra.  24.  fol.  rhombeum:  Sidarhom- 
bifolia.  25.  fol.  dentation:  Populus  grandidentata.  26.  fol.  serra- 
tum:  Fagus  Castanea.  27.  fol.  duplicato-serratum:  Betula  nigra, 
Linn.  28.  fol.  crenatum:  Quercus  Prinus,  monticola. — This  is 
the  Chesnut-oak  of  Pennsylvania. — 29.  fol.  repandum:  Hydroco- 

tyle SO.  fol.  undulation:  Asclepias  obtusifolia.  31.  fol. 

laciniatum:  Rudbeckia  laciniata.  32.  fol.  simiatum:  Argemone 
mexicana.  N.  B.  I  must  consider  this  as  one  of  the  indigenous 
plants  of  the  United-States. — 33.  fol.  pandu ration:  Convolvulus 
Imperati;  a  native  of  Egypt,  Italy,  &c.  34.  fol.  ly ration:  Scnecio 
lyratus.  35.  fol.  runcination:  Leontodon  Taraxacum,  or  Common 
Dandelion.  See  page  260.  I  now  incline  to  consider  this  as  truly 
indigenous  in  North- America. — 36.  fol.  lobatum:  Liriodendron 
Tulipifera,  or  Tulip-tree;  called  also  Poplar,  Canoe-wood,  &c, 
&c. — 37 '.  fol. palmatum:  Viola  palmata.  38.  fol.  trilobatum:  Ane- 
mone Hepatica.  39.  fol.  palmato-lobatum:  Liquidambar  Styra- 
ciflua,  called  Sweet-Gum,  Bilstead,  &c.  See  Catesby,  Carol,  p.  65. 
t.  65.  40.  fol.  multipartitum:  Crysocoma  corona.  41.  fol.  pinna'- 
turn:  Proserpinaca  palustris. 


i 

PLATE  XXXIII. 

This  plate  is  wholly  devoted  to  the  forms  of  Compound  and 
doubly-compound  Leaves.  The  figures  were  done  expressly  for 
this  work,  by  Mr.  Redoute. 

Fig.  1.  Foliwn  conjugation,  velbinatum:  Zygophvllum  Faba- 
go;  a  native  of  Syria,  Mauritania,  Siberia,  &c.  2.  fol.  tematum: 


324  EXPLANATION  OF  THE  PLATES. 

Trifblium  pratense,  or  Red-Clover,  now  very  extensively  natu- 
ralized in  the  United-States.  3.  fol.  ternatum:  foliis  duplicato- 
serratis:  Spiraea  trifoliata,  or  Indian  Physic;  see  part  III.  page 
59. — 4-.  fol.  quaternatum:  Zornia  tetraphylla.  5.  fol.  digitatum: 
Aesculus  Pavia.  See  explan.  of  plate  xv.  fig.  3 — 6.  folium  digi- 
tatum;foliohs  septenis:  Lupinus  perennis,  or  Perennial  Lupin,  an 
extremely  common  plant  in  the  vicinity  of  Philadelphia.  7.fol.pe- 
dahnn:  Helleborus  foetidus:  See  Part  III.  page  71.  8.  fol.  peda- 
tum;  foliis  compositis:  Adiantum  pedatum;  called  Maiden-hair, 
and  Mow -hair.  An  extremely  common,  as  well  as  beautiful,  plant 
within  the  limits  of  the  Botanical  Excursions,  in  the  neigh- 
bourhood of  Philadelphia. — 9.  fol.  impari-pinnatum:  Juglans  to- 
mentosa,  vel  squamosa-  This  is  the  true  Shell-bark  Hickory. — 
10.  fol.  abnipti-pinnatwn:  Tamarindus  indica;  a  native  of  the 
East  and  AVest  Indies,  of  Egypt,  and  Arabia.  11.  fol.  Qirrhoso- 
pinnatum:  Pisum  sativum,  or  Common  Pea;  extensively  cultiva- 
ted in  the  United-States.  12  fol  pinnatum;  foliolis  bijugis:  Cas- 
sia Absus;  a  native  of  India  and  of  Egypt.  13.  fol.  bipinnahtm: 
Mimosa  farnesiana.  14.  fol.  btpinnatum:  Melia  Azedarach,  now 
naturalized  in  many  parts  of  the  United-States.  See  Part  HI. 
page  47. — 15.  fol.  tripinnatum:  Conium  maculatum,  or  Common 
Hemlock.  Common  in  many  parts  of  the  United-States;  but  if 
indigenous  uncertain. 


ADDITIONAL  EXPLANATION  OF  PLATE  I. 

Fig.  2.  The  American  Cranberry,  or  Vaccinium  macrocar- 
pon  of  Aiton:  the  Oxycoccos  palustris  of  Persoon.  The  leaves 
are  alternate  {folia  alternd):  the  corolla  is  campanulate,  or  bell- 
shaped  {corolla  campanulata),  and  consists  of  one  petal  (See  Part 
I.  page  133-),  the  segments  of  which  are  reflected.  The  stamens 
are  generally  eight  in  number;  the  germ  inferior,  or  placed  be- 
low the  corolla  (germen  inferum):  the  fruit,  a  berry  (bacca). 

This  plant  and  the  Sarracenia  purpurea  frequently  grow  to- 
gether, in  boggy  ground. 


l'h.lc    111 


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INDEX. 


In  this  Index,  the  figures  ii  and  ill  signify  Parts  Second  and  Third  of  the  Element 
in  the  second  volume.  All  the  other  figures  refer  to  Part  First 


Abruptum,  folium,  37 

absorbents,  53,  60,  209 

Acaules,  iii.  165 

accumbentes,  catyledones,  219 

acerosum,  folium,  &c.  31,  250 

acinaciforme,  folium,  34 

acinaciform  leaf,  34 

acini,  194 

Acotyledones,  .       210,  211 

acuminatum,  folium,  &c.  32,  250 

aculeatum,  folium,  33 

aculeus  67,  68,  69,  83 

acutiuscula,  anthera,  162 

acuta,  acutum,  32,  162 

adeps  arbor um,  ii.  14 

adnata  (adnate),  anthera,  163 

adpressum,  folium,  42 

adversum,  folium,  41 

aerophores,  vasseaux,  ii.  29 

xqualis,  134.  iii.  113 

affinity  of  animals  and  vegetables,  15, 
16,  20,  270,  273,  275.  ii.  3,  4,  29 
agamia,  iii  160 

age  of  trees,  ii.  18,  19.  iii.  97 

Aggregate,  287.  iii.  15 

agricultural  rules  of  savage  nations, 

63,  297,  298 
aigrette,  237—341, 259 

air, — its  comport  ion .  '.  1 

air-pump,  56 


air-vessels, 

55.  ii.  28 

ala, 

198 

alatus,  petiolus,  &c. 

70,  174 

alx, 

136 

albidus, 

albumen, 

203,  204 

alburnum, 

ii.  14 

Algae, 

210 

Algues,  les, 

iii.  165 

alterna,  folia, 

40 

alveolatum,  alveolate, 

285 

amatorial  parts  of  die  fructification, 

140 
Amentacex,  iii.  137 
amentum  (ament),  115,  290 
American  plants,  peculiarity  of,  90,91 
ammoniac,  or  volatil  alkali,  iii.  88 
amplexicaule,  folium,  41 
amplexicaulia — semi  (folia),  41 
ampulla,  87 
analysis  of  plants,  iii.  88 
anceps,  caulis,  &c.  22,  34 
ancipital  leaf,  34 
androgynous,  iii.  131,  151 
anfractuosx,  220 
angulata,  angulatum,  162,  177 
angulis  membraneis,  187 
Angiospermia,  iii.  73,  74 
annual  plants,  15,  103 
anthera  (airther),  3  61—165 
difl'.  i                                       161 


anthodium,, 

anthracinum, 

apetalus  flos, 

apex, 

aphrodisiacks, 

apiculatum  (apiculate), 

Apoeinese, 

apothecium, 

apotheosis  of  botanists, 

appendages, 

appressus, 

approximata, 

aphyllae, 

aphyllus,  caulis, 

aquatie  plants, 

Aralix, 

arcuatam, 

ardor  urinae, 

aril, 

arillatum, 

arillus,  aril, 

arista, 

aristata, 

arma, 

armature, 

articulate, 

articulatum,  folium, 

articulatus,  bulbus, 

articulus  culmi, 

ascendens, 

ascidium, 

ascidiformes,  bracteae, 

Aspei'ifoli<e,     135,  164, 

asperum, 

Aspermse, 

assurgens,  anthera,  &c- 

astronomy, 

atmospheric -air, 

Atripliccs, 

atrum, 

attenuatus,  pedunculus, 

aubier, 

auleum  floris, 

aura  seminalis, 


253 

$  132 

161 

iii.  129 

252 

iii.  22 

iii.  171,  172 

iii.  80,  81 

20 

72 

123 

213 

26 

19,  156 

iii.  156 

160 

iii.  87 

203 

250 

198,  200,  203 

119,  265 

119,  163 

68 

83,84 

37 

36 

10 

25 

160 

87 

87 

173,  180,  204, 

235.  iii.  21 

iii.  167 

160,  163 

iii.  149 

87 

iii.  39 

253 

73 

ii.  14 

139 

165 


INDEX. 

aurora  borealis,  296 

autumn,  picture  of  a  North-American, 

64,65 
avenium,  folium,  33 

awn,  119, 265 

axil  of  the  leaves  93 

axillare,  folium,  39 

axillaris,  spina,  71,  288 

azotic  gas,  270 — 273 


B. 

Bacca,  193—195 

baccatum,  255 

bacciferae, 

barba,  88, 135 

barbata,  137 

barbatum)  177 

barbs,  88,  244 

bark,  20, 46—50 

bear  of  North-America,  its  instinctive 
knowledge,  iii.  130 

beardless,  177 

bee-bread,  157,  167 

benevolence  of  Providence,  62 

berry,  193—195 

Bicornes,  iii.  36,  45,  47.  109 

16 
iii.  37 

133,  162 
171,  173 

72,  117,  118,  286 

38 

231 

163 

236 

162 

164,  246 

36 

134,  162 


biennial  plants, 

biennis, 

bifida,  corolla,  &c, 

bifidum,  bifidus, 

biflora,  biflorus, 

bigeminatum,  folium, 

bijuga, 

bilamellata, 

bilaterales, 

biloba, 

bilocularis, 

binatum  folium, 

bipartita,  corolla,  &c, 

birds,  62,  260,  261,  296,  297,  300,  301 

biternatum,  folium,  38 

bivalvis,  117,  164 

black -drying  plants,  iii.  80 

bladder,  87 

blea,  .  ii.  11,  16 


INDEX. 


blood  of  plants, 

56,81 

carinat  x, 

221 

Borragines, 

iii.  21 

carinatum,  folium,  &c-,      34, 

, 147,  251 

bottle, 

87 

carnea  subtantia, 

ii-  16 

brachium,  brachiatus, 

23 

carnosa, 

182,  201 

bracte, 

39 

carnosum,  folium, 

34 

bractea,                                 39, 78—82 

carpomorphi, 

210 

bracteatus,  pedunculus, 

73 

cartilagineum,  folium, 

33 

brevis,  brevissima, 

137,  234 

Caryophyllei, 

iii.  12,  46 

brevissimus, 

173 

case,  casket, 

181,  197 

Brotherhood,  oue,  class  of, 

iii.  90,  134 

castaneum, 

253 

bulbifera,  bulbiferum, 

95 

castratum,  filamentum, 

159 

bulbosa, 

8 

cataplasms, 

iii.  89 

Bulbosae  (bulbous  plants), 

13 

cathartic, 

iii.  37 

Bulbosis  affines, 

13 

catkin, 

115 

bulbus, 

8—13 

cauda, 

237,  241 

bulbus  caulinus, 

92 

caudatum, 

251 

bullatus, 

242 

caudex, 

4,95 

button, 

176 

caulinum,  folium, 

39 

caulinus,  pedunculus, 

71 

C. 

caidis,                              21 — 

24,  33,  34 

Cacti, 

iii.  57 

cavernoso  coriacea, 

246 

caduca,  corolla, 

137 

cavus,  caidis, 

11 

caducse,  bractex, 

79 

centrifugae, 

236 

caducum,  periantliium, 

111 

centripetal^,  (centripetal), 

235 

calcar, 

cerealia, 

169 

calcaratum, 

146 

Ceres, 

121 

calendarium  florx,            64 

,  296—304 

cernuus, 

72 

Calycanthemae, 

iii.  35 

chain  of  nature, 

153 

calycina  methodus, 

144 

chaff, 

118 

calycistx, 

144 

chalaza, 

202 

calyptra, 

107,  122 

chartacea, 

201 

calyx, 

107,  127 

cliaton, 

115 

canaliculatum, 

34,  176 

chive, 

158 

cancellatum, 

252 

chocolate,  its  good  and  bad 

qualities, 

capacity  for  receiving  life, 

227 

&c                                  iii 

.  110,  130 

Capillares, 

iii.  165 

cholera  morbus, 

iii.  99 

capillari  s,  capillare, 

173,  177 

chronological  view  of  plants, 

ii.  68 

capitatum,  stigma, 

176 

chyle, 

56 

capitulum, 

285,  294 

chymifera,  vasa, 

ii.  29 

Capparides, 

iii.  66 

cicatricle,  germinating, 

210,  225 

capreolus, 

73 

cicatricula, 

225 

eapsula, 

180—184 

cicatrix, 

199 

capsula,  staminis, 

161 

Cichoracex, 

iii.  121 

carbonic  acid, 

171 

ciliata,  ciliatum,  corolla, 

33,  137 

carina, 

136 

c'diatus,  pappus, 

239 

INDEX. 

Cinarocephalae, 

iii.  121 

connivens, 

160 

cion, 

87 

coutiguae, 

219 

circles,  ligneous, 

ii.  16 

contortuplicatae, 

222 

circumscissa, 

182 

contracta,  panicula, 

293 

cirrhiferus,  pedunculus, 

71 

convexa, 

288 

cirrhosum,  folium, 

32,37 

convex-leaf, 

43 

cirrhus,                      67 

',  68,  6S 

»,  73,  74 

convexum,  folium, 

34 

Cisti, 

iii.  66 

convolutum,  stigma. 

177 

claspers, 

73,74 

convoluto-peltata, 

231 

clavata, 

233 

convolutus,  cirrhus, 

74 

clavatum, 

250 

copper,  sulphat  of, 

57 

clavatus, 

174 

corcle, 

225,  247 

clavicula, 

73 

corculum, 

198,  224 

cleft-leaf,  &c. 

31,  176 

cordatum,  folium, 

31,171 

climate,              16, 66, 

296,  300.  ii.  13 

cord  (navel), 

283 

cloves, 

93 

coriacea, 

201 

cluster, 

291,  292 

coriaceum  (coriaceous), 

187,  255 

coacervata, 

231 

cork-like, 

201 

Coadunatae, 

iii.  67 

cornutum, 

146 

coarctata, 

293 

corol, 

31,  126,  127 

coccineum, 

254 

corollina, 

159 

coccux, 

297 

corollistae, 

144 

cochleariformes, 

222 

corona, 

ii.  23 

cochleatx, 

221 

corona,  seminis, 

238 

coiled, 

119 

Coronariae, 

13.  iii.  28 

coloratum,  folium, 

34 

coronifoi'me, 

176 

colours  of  the  leaves  of 

vetables,  64, 65 

coronula, 

198 

columella, 

184 

cortex, 

20,  46,  125 

columna, 

iii.  95 

cortical  glands, 

48 

Columniferae, 

iii.  52 

,  66,  95 

cortical  net, 

30,  40,  50 

coma, 

7, 

80,  241 

corticata, 

245 

comosae,  bractex,  &c. 

7,80 

corymbus  (corymb), 

290,  291 

Compositae,                  180, 204. 

iii.  121 

Coryophylleje, 

iii.  46 

compressum,  folium, 

34 

costa, 

30,  35 

concavum,  folium,  &c. 

33,  176 

costs, 

243 

condiments, 

iii 

.  19,  89 

costatum, 

252 

cone, 

195 

cotyledon, 

198 

confcrta,  folia,  &c. 

40,  295 

cowled, 

177 

conicum, 

171 

crassi, 

227 

Coniferae, 

196, 

iii .  137 

crassus,  stylus, 

173 

Confervae, 

210 

crenata,  corolla, 

163 

conjugal  bed, 

124 

crenatum,  folium, 

32 

conjugatum,  folium, 

37 

crescent-shaped, 

31 

connata, 

160 

crescent-shaped  leak 

31 

connstum  folium, 

41 

crispata. 

245 

INDEX. 


cri  spurn,  folium, 

crista, 

cristata, 

Cross-shaped  flowers, 

crown-shaped, 

cruciata,  corolla, 

cruciforme,  (cruciform), 

Crustacea, 

crustaceum, 

cryptogamy, 

crvptomania, 

cucullatum,  stigma, 

cucullus, 

Cucurbitaceae, 

Cucurbitaceous  plants, 

culm, 

Culmifera;, 

culmus, 

culture  (its  effects), 

cuneiforme,  folium,  &c. 

cup  of  the  flower, 

curled  leaf, 

curtain  of  plants, 

curva,  radicula, 

cuspidatum, 

cuticula, 

cutis, 

cyathiformi9, 

cyclici, 

cylindracea,  cylindricous, 

cylindrical  leaf, 

cyma,  cyme, 

Cymosae, 

C\peroideae, 

cyphella, 

cysta,  (cyst), 


33 
237,  243 
137 
111 
176 
136 
176 
201 
255 
210 
iii.  162 
177 

204.  iii.  137 

228,  236 

21—26,  120 

26,  120 

21—26,  306 

16,  17,  84,  85 

31,  159 

107 

33 

123 

234 

ii.  6 

47,  201 

135 

227 

173, 181 

282,  284,  287 

287.  iii. 

212.  iii.  229 

iii.  172 

196, 197 


D. 


Decandria,  iii.  41 

decaphyllum, 
decemfidum, 
decidua,  deciduae, 
deciduum,  deciduous, 


47,  92,  &c. 

109 

110 

79,  137 

111,  240,  304 


decompositum,  folium, 

decurrens,  folium, 

decursive, 

deflorata  (deflorate), 

defoliatio  (defoliation), 

dehiscens, 

dehiscentia, 

delineatio  plant*, 

deltoides,  folium, 

demersum,  folium, 

dcnsa,  dense, 

dentatum,  folium,  &c, 

dentibus  incisa, 

depauperata, 

dependens,  folium,  racemus, 

deprcssum,  folium,  &c., 

descendens  caudex, 

dextrorsum, 

Diadelphia,  162,  188.  iii.  99,  &c. 

diagnosis,  205 

diametral  insertions, 

dichotomus,  caulis, 

dicocca  (dicoccous), 

Dicotyledones, 

didyma, 

didymum, 

Didynamia,       125, 135.  iii.  13,  72—82 

diffbrmes,  Tetrapetali,  iii.  102 

diffbrmis,  corolla,  134 

diffusa,  293 

diftusus,  caulis,  23 

digitatum,  folium,  36 

Digynia,  iii.  4,  et  passim. 

dimidiatum,  involucrum,  &c  114,  294 

Dioecia,108, 115, 116, 167.iii- 139—150 


37 

41 

37 

164 

64?65,  304 

164 

164 

85,  190,  199 

31 

41 

293 

32,  159 

243 


42,  292 

34,  176 

4 

177 


ii.  24 

24 

183 

210,  213—215 

164,  181 

171 


declinatum,  (declined),  160 

declinatus,  72 

decomposition  ofve^tables,       iii.  88 


dipetala  (dipetalous), 

diphyllum, 

dipterygia, 

dipyrena, 

directa  (direct), 

diiectio, 

discus, 

discus  pronus, 

supinus. 
dispcrma, 
dissemination  '('seeds. 


131 

243 

234 
39 
43 
43 

43 

257 


INDEX. 

dissepimentum, 

183,  184 

Epiphyllosphermac, 

iii.  165 

dfstans, 

295 

equitans  g-emma 

disticha,  folia, 

40 

erectum,  folium,  &c. 

42,  292 

distichus,  caulis, 

23 

erectus, 

72 

distincta, 

163 

Ericae, 

iii.  36,  37 

divaricata, 

293 

erosum,  (erose),  folium, 

33 

divergentes, 

219 

esculent  class, 

iii.  58 

Dodona, 

121 

essential  character, 

iii.  75 

dolabriforme,  folium, 

34 

Euphorbia, 

iii.  52 

dorsal,  dorsalis, 

119 

evalve,  pericarpium, 

dorsum, 

242 

evergreens, 

65,66,304 

double  flowers, 

138,  142 

exaltata, 

90 

drooping, 

72 

excentric,  excentrici, 

228 

dropsy, 

ii 

i.  89,  105 

excretions  of  plants, 

ii.  31 

Drupaeeae, 

191 

exile, 

251 

drupa,  drupe, 

180, 

190,  191 

exsucca, 

duae, 

79 

extrafoliaceus,  pedunculus, 

71 

Dumosae, 

iii.  24 

duodecemfidum, 

110 

F. 

duplicato-convolutae, 

222 

Facies, 

90.  iii.  37 

duplicatus,  bulbus, 

10 

Falcatae, 

221 

dura,  nux, 

245 

falcati, 

227 

duration  of  roots,  &c. 

,     15- 

■17.  iii.  97 

falcatum, 

188 

duriusculum, 

255 

fall  of  the  leaf,            64—67,  298, 304 

farina,                     165,  166. 

ii.  35,  &c. 

E. 

farctum, 

187 

Earth, 

267,  268 

fasciculus, 

285,  294 

earthquakes, 

296 

fascis, 

294 

edulium, 

iii.  6 

fasciculatus, 

40 

egg  of  plants, 

256 

fastigiatus  (fastigiate), 

electricity, 

53, 

276,  277 

faux, 

135 

ele  vato — punctatum , 

252 

favosum, 

ellipticum, 

250 

fecula, 

iii.  106 

(■marginatum,  folium, 

&c. 

32,  176 

fecundating  aura. 

166 

emarginatus  (basi), 

242 

fecundating  powder, 

179, 249 

embryo, 

203, 

,  204,  &c 

fenestrate, 

220 

emetics, 

152. 

iii.  52,  53 

Ferns,                                     27,  28,  205 

empalement, 

107, 

124, 125 

Ferns,  in  stone, 

iii.  167 

enodis,  culmus, 

25 

ferrugineum, 

253 

Ensatae, 

iii.  12 

Ferulaceae, 

288 

ensatum, 

fetus  state, 

156 

ensiforme,  folium, 

34 

fibrosa,  radix, 

6 

envelope, 

130 

fibula, 

176 

epidermis, 

46,  47: 

,  202,  203 

fiddle-shaped  leaf, 

31 

epigoeae, 

214 

fil amentum  (filament), 

158—161 

INDEX. 


iii.  160,  165,  166,  167 
233 


EHices, 
iiliformis, 

filum,  159 
fimbriatum, 

finis  ultimus  Botanices,  iii.  25 

firma,  nux,  245 

fish,  iii.  107 

fissum,  germen,  171 

fissum,  folium,  stigma,  31,  176 
fistulosus, 

flaccidum,                   -  160 

flaxidus,  pedunculis,  72 

flexuosus,  caulis,  &c.  22,  72 

flocks,  88 
flora,  calendar  of,             64,  296 — 302 

florale,  folium,  39 

floralis,  gemma,  100 

floral  leaves,  82 

flora  of  China,  iii.  90 

florifera,  99 

floriferus,  caulis,  306 

flosculosi,  iii.  113 

flos,  cymosus,  287 

flower-cup,  78 

fluxilis,  239 

folia,  35 

foliacei  (foliaceous),  227 

foliaris,  173 
foliatus,  caulis,  8cc.              22,  73,  292 

foliifera,  100 

firtiifero-florifera,  100 

foliola  seminalia,  207 

foliolum,  foliola,  35 

foliorum  methodus,  45 

foliosa,  289 

fuliosum,  294 

folium,  29—42 

folliculus,  (follicle),  87,  190 

Fougeres,  iii-  165 

foot-stalk,  85 

forks,  84 
fovea, 

fovilla,  165,  166 
frondesceiuia  (frondescence),  63,  304 
frons  C frond  ), 


fructificatio  (fructification),  3, 4,20,106 
fructus,  106 

frutices,  5 

fruticosx,  16 

Fuci,  19,  87,  205,  210 

fugax, 

fulcra  (fulcres),  28,  67—91 

fulcratus,  caulis,  23 

Fungi  (Fungous  plants),  28,201.iii.l6l 


fungiformis, 

fungosum, 

funiculus  umbilicalis, 

furcx, 

f  areata, 

fuscum, 

fusiformis  (fusiform), 

G. 

Galbulus, 

galea, 
galls, 

gap. 

gaping  corolla, 

gamboge, 
gas,  azotic, 

carbonic  acid, 

hydrogen, 

oxygen, 

geminse, 

geminati, 

gemma, 

gemma  communis, 

floralis, 

foliifera, 

foliierfero — florifera, 

geniculatus,  pedunculus, 

genitura  of  plants, 

germen, 

germinantia, 

germination, 

gibbum,  folium,  &c. 

gills  of  aquatic  animals, 

girdling, 

glaber,  caulis, 

glabra, 


227 
255 
283 
84 
163 
253 
6,233 


135 

57 

135 

135 

iii.  69,  HI 

270 


270 

271 

76 

72 

-100 

100 

100 

100 

100 

73 

166 


92- 


96,97,171,17- 

223 

266—281 

34,  250 

50 

Li.  12 

\- 


INDEX. 

g-labrum,  folium, 

34 

heart-shaped, 

31 

glandula,  gland,  or  glandule, 

68,  85 

heat, 

267,  274,  275 

glandulae,  capillarcs, 

86 
86 

helvolum, 
Heptandria, 

253 
iii.  30,33,91,92 

glandulosum, 

herba, 

3,  4,  20 

glaucus, 

herbaceus^ 

globosa,  giobosum, 

in, 

176,  181 

herbaria, 

279 

giobosum,  pomum, 

192 

herbs, 

15 

glochides, 

88,244 

herring-month, 

299 

glomerata, 

Hesperidex, 

iii.  57 

glossy  leaf, 

33 

Hesperides, 

iii.  57 

gluma  (glume), 

107, 

118,120 

Hesperus, 

iii.  57 

Glumosa:, 

120 

hexagonus, 

glutinosus, 

Hexandria, 

iii.  26,  30,  101 

gnomonici, 

227 

hexaphyllum, 

114 

gongylus,  iii. 

173 

hexasticha,  spica, 

289 

gout, 

iii.  59,  89 

hilum, 

198,  199 

gracile, 

hirsutum, 

160 

grafting, 

100 

hirtus, 

Gramina, 

6,  24,  26,  122 

hispida,  hispid, 

li"9 

Gramineac, 

26 

hispidum,  folium,  &c. 

33, 294 

grana  bulbiformia, 

247 

hispidus  caulis, 

23,33 

granatum, 

: 

196,  197 

hoariness, 

244 

granite, 

19 

hoi  us, 

iii.  39 

granulata,  radix, 

6,8 

hooks, 

88 

granules, 

194 

honey  of  plants, 

151—158 

Grasses, 

6,  24,  25 

,  26,  41 

honey-cup, 

146,  155 

Grinning  flowers, 

iii.  75 

hollow-leaf, 

34 

Gruinales, 

iii 

i.  44,  95 

Holoracex, 

iii.  39 

Gymnospermia, 

125 

honey -combed, 

285 

Gynandria, 

159 

.  iii.  124 

hooded, 
horizontale,  folium, 

42 

H. 

horti  sicci, 

iii  80 

Habit  of  plants, 

iii.  98 

humifusus, 

habitus, 

husk, 

118,  201 

hairs, 

47, 

88—91 

hyalinus, 

lialbert-shaped, 

31 

hybernacle, 

20,  92,  95 

hami, 

88 

hybernaculum, 

8,92 

hastate  leaf, 

31 

Hvdrocharides, 

iii.  145 

hastatum,  folium, 

31 

hydrogene, 

iii.  88 

hatchet-shaped  leaf, 

liydrogen  gas, 

270 

Haulm,  haum,  haume, 

24 

hygrometer, 

265 

head, 

294 

Hyperion, 

iii.  110 

health,  choice  of  a  situation  for 

',  iii.  78 

hypocrateriformis,  corolla,               135 

heart  of  plants, 

hypogoeae, 

214 

INDEX. 

I. 

involucrala, 

J45. 

Icosandria, 

174. 

iii.  5C 

1—60 

involucre, 

113,  114 

imberbis,  corolla, 

137 

involucret, 

114 

imbricatum,  periantliium, 

111 

involucrum, 

107,  114,  118 

imbricata,  folia, 

40 

partiale, 

114 

immersse, 
imperfectus, 

205 
225 

•         i 

113 
50,57 

iron,  sulpbat  of, 

impregnation, 

175 

irregularis,  corolla, 

134 

incanus, 

i  ratability,             58,  209.  ii.  3.  iii.  158 

incisa, 

243 

iathmis  intcrceptum, 

188 

inclinata, 

235 

iucompletus,  flos,  &c.3 

132 

,226 

J- 

incrassatus, 

73 

Jagged, 

163 

incubation, 

296 

Japanese, 

91 

incumbens,  anthera, 

163 

Japan, 

91 

incumbentes, 

219 

jaws, 

135 

incurvatum  (incurved), 

188 

jointed,  joints, 

25 

incurvum, 

160 

julus, 

113 

Indians, 

63 

American, 

63, 

,  297- 

-299 

K. 

Keel, 

136 

indusium, 

iii 

,172 

keeled  leaf, 

34,  35 

inequale,  folium, 

kernel, 

203,  207,  211 

inner  bark, 

ii.  9 

kidney-shaped, 

31 

inerme, 

kneed, 

73 

infera,  corolla,  &c, 

137, 

235 

knob, 

176 

inferum,  germen, 

172 

inflammable  air, 

270.  iii.  88 

h. 

inflatum,  perianthium, 

&c., 

110, 

187 

Labellum, 

inflexum,  folium,  &c, 

43, 

160 

Labiati, 

iii-  77 

inflorescence,  inflorescentia, 

285 

labiatum  perianthium, 

110 

infundibuliformis,  corolla, 

135 

labium, 

injections,  colouring, 

49 

lacemus  arillus, 

insects,       16,  50,  56, 

157,  158.  iii.  70 

lacera  ligula, 

insertio, 

39 

lacerum,  fohum, 

33 

instinct, 

281.  iii. 

130 

lacinia, 

integer, 

342 

laciniata  (laciniuted), 

134,  243 

integerrimum,  folium, 

33 

laciniatum,  filamentum, 

159 

integrum,  folium, 

32 

folium, 

32 

integumenta  seminum 

propria, 

201 

laciniatus  flos, 

134 

interfoliaceus, 

71 

lactescent  leaves, 

57 

internodium, 

25 

lacteum, 

253 

intrafoliacex,  stipulse, 

77 

lacteum,  semen, 

2jj 

intrafoliaceus, 

71 

lacunosx,  cotvlcdones, 

221 

Inundate, 

iii 

.36 

lacuuosum,  folium, 

INDEX. 


Ixta, 

90 

light, 

275—277 

laevigatum, 

251 

lignosa,  capsula, 

laevis, 

lignosum,  legumen, 

lamella, 

lignosus,  caulis, 

lamina,  corollrf, 

133 

lignum, 

2d 

lampades, 

296 

ligula, 

lana, 

ligulata  (ligulate),  corolla,         iii.  120 

lanatum,  folium, 

33 

lilaccinus, 

lanatus,  pappus, 

239 

lileacea,  corolla, 

lanceolata  plumula, 

230 

Lilia, 

lanceolatum,  folium, 

31 

Liliaceae, 

129 

lanugo, 

99 

,238 

Liliaceous  plants, 

204,  211, 212 

lapidea,  mix, 

246 

limbus  (limb), 

133 

laterale,  stigma, 

linea, 

laterales,  stipulx, 

77 

lineare,  folium,  8tc, 

31,  171,  186 

lateralis,  anthera, 

163 

linearis,  anthera, 

70,  162 

bulbus, 

pcdunculus, 

• 

lineatum,  folium, 

■           secta, 

linguiformc,  folium, 
linidus, 

34 

liquor  amnii, 

153, 154 

latcra  dehisccns,  anthera, 

lirella, 

iii.  172 

laterifolius,  pedunculus, 

n 

lobatac  (lobed), 

220 

lateritius, 

lobatum,  folium, 

32 

latticed, 

252 

176 

larva, 

167 

lobi  seminales, 

207 

larynx, 

56 

lobus, 

laxus,  caidis, 

167 

loculamcnta, 

183 

— — —  racemus, 

292 

locus, 

38 

utriculus, 

locusta, 

lead,  oxydes  of, 

272 

Lomentaceae, 

190.  iii.  44 

leaf, 

20 

lomentum, 

iii.  44 

leafing-, 

301 

longissima, 

160,  164,  234 

leafless, 

27 

longissimus, 

72 

leathery-leaf, 

longitudinaliter  sulcata, 

163 

legumen,                         1 80, 

186- 

-190 

longus  pcdunculus, 

72 

Lcguminosa:,               188.  iiij 

,102, 

103 

lucidum, 

251 

lepra, 

ii. 

lunatum,  folium, 

lcris, 

lungs  of  plants, 

55—59,  81 

liber, 

20 

lunulatum,  folium, 

31 

libera  anthera 

187 

250 

iii.  22 

liberum,  filamentum, 
Lichens,                   19,  93.  iii 

.171, 

,  8ic 

Lurid  x, 

lid, 

87 

lutcsccnti-viridia, 

254 

life  of  plants, 

267, 

280 

lympha, 

165 

INDEX. 


lymphatica,  vasa,  ii.  26,  27 

lymphatiques,  vaisseaux,  ii.  22 

lyratum,  folium,  32 

lythrarge,  272 

M. 

Maculatus, 

Magnolix,  iii.  67 

Magrioliers,  les,  iii.  67 

magnum,  251 

Malvaceous  plants,  89.  iii.  95 

many-celled,  183 

marcescens,  corolla,  137 

marginaceo-extenuatum,  253 

marginibus  membranaceis,  251 

margo,  margin,  242 

Marriages,  clandestine,  iii.  16(J 

Materia  medica,      iii.  6,  9,  et  passim, 

maximx,  cotyledones,  218 

maximum,  legumen,  188 
mechanical  operation  of  medicines, 

iii.  105 

mediocre,  110 

mediocres,  218,  228 

medium,  251 

medulla,  20,  105 

medullaria,  vasa,  ii.  29 

melinum,  253 

membvana  interna,  201 

membranacea,  202 

membranaceum,  legumen,  187 

membranaceum,  folium,  ,          135 

membranaceus,  242 

meteors,  atmospheric,  296 
methods  of  plants,          append.  2—16 

methodus  calycina,  144 

methodus  foliorum,  45 

micropyle,  199, 200 

migration  of  seeds,  257 — 265 

milk  of  plants,  iii.  122 

milky,  253 

minuti,  22S 

minutum,  251 

Miscellanea:,  iii.  162 

modus  florendv,  285 


Monadelphia,  160.  iii.  90—99 

Monandria,  iii.  4,  125,  et  passim. 

Monocotyledoncs,  plants,      210,  211, 

212,  217 
monocotyledonous  seeds,  211 

Monoecia,  115,  116 

Monogamia,  iii.  112,  116—119 

Monogamy,  iii.  112 

Monogynia,  iii.  4,  26,  et  passim, 

monoici  flores, 

monopetala,  corolla,  131 

monoptervgia,  243 

monosperma,  bacea,  &c,  193 

Mosses,      191,  205,  280.  iii.  161,  163, 

164,  167 
mould,  seed  of,  264 

mucilaginosa,  203 

mucronatum,  folium, 
mulberry-month,  298 

multifidus,  cirrhus,  74 

multiflora,  gluma,  US 

multiflorus,  pedunculus,  &c,    72,  286 
multijuga,  plumula,  231 

multilateralcs,  236 

multilatum,  159 

midtilocularis,  183 

multipartitum,  folium,  32 

Multisiliqux,  229.  iii.  66 

multivalvis,  gluma,  119 

mutilati  flores,  143 

mutilus  flos,  142 

Myrti,  iii.  110 


X. 

Naiades, 
Naked-flowers, 

leaf, 

napiformis,  radix, 
narcotics, 
natans,  foUum, 
natural  character, 

systems. 

Nature, 

ncccssaria  polygamia, 

MS, 


iii.  52 


iii.  106,  123 
42 

117,  278 

67,  loS 


INDEX. 


nectared,  ncclareous,  nectarine,     146 

numerus, 

nectariferae,  squamae, 

151 

nut, 

■2 14,  245,  246 

nectariferi,  pori, 

nutans,  pedunulis, 

72 

ncctarium,               127,  131, 
nectarium  calvcinum, 

1-15—158 
147 

nutriehtia  vasa. 

calcaratum, 

146 

nux, 

244, 245,  246 

147 
146 
146 

O. 

Obcordatum,  folium, 

■                comutum, 

32,323 

146 

obliqua, 

147 

obliqua,  radix, 

148 

obliquum,  folium, 

41 

147 

oblonga,  anthera, 

181 

148 

146 

radix, 

oblongum,  folium, 

-         scrotiformc, 

31 

turbinatum, 

146 

171 

nectary, 

154 

needle-shaped  leaf, 

obtusa,  anthera,  &c, 

163,  181 

nervosum,  folium, 

33 

obtuse,  angulatus  caulisi 

nestling  seed, 

193 

obtusum  folium,  &c, 

32,  110, 187 

nicked  leaf, 

obovatum,  folium, 

322 

nidulantia,  semina, 
niger, 

193 
253 

nm  ft 

obvoluta,  gemma, 

nitidum,  folium, 

33 

ochraceum, 

25S 

niticlus, 

ochrea,  ochrey, 

253 

nisus  formativus, 

ii. 

Octandria,  iii.  33—37,  92, 101, 127,  &c. 

nodosi  pili, 

octofidum, 

110 

nodosum,  legumen, 

187 

octofidum,  perianthium, 

110 

nodosus,  caulis, 

octophyllum,  perianthium,               109 

■'■'             culmus, 

odours  of  flowers,  ike, 

169.  iii.  37 

nomenclature  of  leaves, 

30 — 43 

oil,  its  effects  on  leaves, 

55,56 

notched  leaf, 

32 

Oneidas  (Indians), 

iii.  9 

nucamentaceum, 

255 

Onondagos  (Indians),  their  calendar, 

nucamentum, 

115 

300 

nucleus, 

203,  204 

operculum,                 expl.  pi.  vol.  ii.  37 

nuda,  arista, 

opposita  calyci, 

159 

nudum,  capituluin, 

opposita,  folia,  &c, 

40,  159 

folium,  &.c, 

284 

oppositae,  cotyledones, 

219 

opposite  leaves, 

45 

nudus  caulis, 

22 

oppositi  pedunculi, 

71 

-  culmus, 

oppositi,  rami, 

flos,  &c, 

295 

orbicular,  or  circular,  leaf,               31 

■           racemus, 

292 

orbiculatum,  folium,  &c, 

31,  250 

■    stipes, 

Orchidea;, 

iii.  128 

nullum  peristoma. 

drchidea,  corolla, 

INDEX. 


orders,  iii.  3,  Sec. 

orclines  naturales,  iii.  6,  &c. 

organs  of  respiration,  57 

organs,  sexual,  158 — 178 

organum  motus  plants,  29 

osseum,  255 

outer-bark,  20.  ii.  7,  8 

oval  leaf,  Si 

ovale,  folium,  31 

ovata,  181 

ovate  leaf,  31 
ovatum,  amentum, 

ovatum,  folium,  &c,  31,  186,  192 
ovatus  sti'obilus, 


P. 


300 


Palestine,  climate  of, 
Palmse,  iii. 

palmata,  radix,  explan.  pi. 

palmate,  or  hand-shaped  leaf,  32 

palmatum,  folium,  32 

Palms,  27,  28,  62.  iii.  142,  161 

pandurxforme,  folium,  31 

panicle,  292, 293 

panicula,  285,  292,  293 

coarctata,  293 

congesta,  293 

contracta,  293 

densa,  293 

. diffusa,  293 

—————  divaricata,  293 

patens,  293 

spicata,  293 

Papaveraceae,  iii-  66 

papilionacea,  corolla,  136 

Papilionacea:,         iii.  44, 103, 106,  136 
papilionaceous,  or  butterfly-shaped, 

136 
papillosum,  33, 252 

pappus,  28,  236 

parabolicum,  folium,  31 

parapetala,  150 

parasitic  plants,  17..  18,  260,  305 

parasiticus,  caulis,  22 

partiale,  mvolucrurn3.  114 


partits,  220 

partitum,  folium,  gcrmen,  32,  171 

patelliformis,  227 

patens,  anthera,  filamentum,  &c,    72, 
160,  163 

patentissimum,  163 

patentiusculum,  160,  163 

pedatum,  folium,  38 

pedatus,  racenms,  292 

pedicel,  188 

pedicellatum,  pedicelled,  172,  188 
pedunculus,                  67—69,  71 — 73 

pellucida,  testa,  201 
pelta,  iii.  e.vpl.  tab.  38 
peltatum,  folium,  &c,  40,  41,  176,  308 

pendula,  antliera,  163 

pendulous,  163 

pendidus,  pedunculus,  72 

pentacocca,  capsula,  183 

pepo,  192 

perdifoils,  66 

perfectus,  embryo,  226 

periantluforme,  involucrum,  115 

perianthium,  perianth,  107,  &c. 

aquale,  HO 

bifidum,  108 

ciliatum,  111 

floris,  108 

•  fructificationis,  108 

fructus,  108 

inferum,  111 

inatquale,  110 

— — — —  imbricatum,  111 

inflatum,  HO 

globosum,  110 

hexaphvllum,  109 

labiatum,  110 

perichxtium,  122 

peridium,  iii. 

perigonium,  131 

pei-igynanda,  130 

peripherici,  228 
peristoma,  or  peristomium, 

cxpl.  plates,  Vol.  ii.  38 

perpendicular  root,  3  3 


INDEX. 


perpcndicularis,  radix.  13 

pcrsistens,  perianthium,  stigma,   111, 

174 
persistenles,  stipule,  77 

personal  names,  iii.  81 

personata,  corolla,  135 

Personate,  iii.  76 

petal,  126—128,  132,  133,  136 

petallinum,  nectarium,  147 

petalum,  127,  131 

petiolaris,  pedunculus,  71 

petiolate  leaf,  41 

petiolatum,  folium,  41 

petiole,  28,  69,  70 

pctiolus,  28,  67—70 

Philadelphia,  latitude,  climate,  &c,  of, 
300—302 
Phycei,  iii.  173 

phyllopliora,  212 

pileus,  iii. 

pilosum,  folium,  receptaculum,  33, 284 
pilus,  69,  88,  91 

Pilze,  iii.  175 

pinnate  leaf,  36,  37 

pinnatifidum,  folium,  32 

pinnatum,  folium,  36 

p'mnatum,  abruptum,  folium,  37 

alternating  37 

articulate,  37 

cirrhosum,  37 

cum  impari,  37 

decursive,  37 

!  interrupte,  37 

opposite,  37 

Piperita,  iii.  33 

pistil,    170,  178.  ii.  35.  iii.  7,  148,  154 
pistillaceous  nectary,  148 

pisullaceum,  nectarium,  148 

pistillum,  170,  175.  ii.  35 

placenta,  282,  283 

plaited,  leaf,  stigma,  33,  176 

plana,  anthera,  163 

plants  culmiferx,  26 

lactescentes,  iii.  122,  123 

tinctorix,  iii.  71,  105 


plants,  passim 

perception  of,  75 

physiology  of,  preface,  viii,  ix, 

&c— 272.  ii.  3,  4 

planum,  folium,  legumen,  &c.  34, 159, 

187,  284 

plaster  of  paris  (gypsum,  or  sidphat  of 

lime)  hastens  the  germination  of 

the  seed,  278 

plicata,  corolla,  136 

plicatx,  cotvledones,  221 

plicatum,  folium,  stigma,        133,  176 
plumheo-livescentia,  semina,  254 

plumosum,  stigma,  177 

plumosus,  pappus,  238 

plumula,  229—231,  321 

seminalis,  224,  225 

plumule,  222—231, 321 

plures,  bracteae,  79 

pod,  184,  185,  189.  iii.  82,  83 

pointal,  170 

poisonous  honey,  149,  152,  153 

poisonous  plants,     149.  iii.  22,  45,  62, 
79,  106,  122,  123 
pollen,    158,  16l,  165—170,  172,  175, 

178,  179,  180,  198,  249-  ii.  35,  &c. . 

iii.  148. 
polleniferous,  166 

Polyadelphia,  iii.  108 — 111 

Polyandria,       150.  iii.  49,  50,  54,  55, 
60—72,  94,  109,  &c 
Polyandrous  plants,  54,  &c. 

polycotyledonous  seeds,  215,  216 

Polygamia,  iii.  150—159 

aequalis,  iii.  112,  113 

■ friistranea,       iii.  112,  114 

necessaria,      iii.  112,  115 

segregata,        iii.  112,  116 

superflua,        iii.  112,  114 

florum,  iii.  112 

polygamies,  iii.  150 

polygamy  of  flowers,  iii.  112 

polyginia,  174.  iii.  21,  28,  56,  65 

Polygonese,  iii.  39 

polyphyllum,  perianthiunu  109" 


INDEX. 


polyphyllus,  cirrus,  74 

polyptera,  243 

polysperma,  bacca,  193 

Pomaceae,  192.  iii.  58 

pome,  192 

Pomiferx,  Append.  7 

pomum,  180,  192.  iii.  58 

Pot-herbs,  120 

prxmorsa,  radix,  7,  8,  32 

prxmorsum,  folium,  32 

primordium,  105,  210 

prolifer,  caulis,  ■  24 

proliferous,  24 

pronus,  discus,  43 

propago,  244,  246,  247.  iii.  173 

proportion,  160.  iii.  3,  26,  &c. 

propria,  intcgumenta,  seminum,     201 
proprium,  nectarium,  147 

perianthium ,  1 12 

■■  receptaculum,  282 

Protex,  iii.  16 

pruina,  244 

pseudo-monototyledonous,  212 

pubes,  88, 244 

pubescens,  pubescent,  174 

pulposum,  pulpy,  legumcn,  187 

pulvis  sternutatorius,  m.  52 

pulvisculus,  211 

pumpion,  192 

punctatum,  folium,  33 

punctum  medullare,  225 

saliens,  210 

putamen,  191,  245.  iii.  66 

Putamineze,  iii.  66 

progenies  nova,  224 

pyramidal,  pyramidalis,  embryo,    227 
pyrainidatum,  capitulum,  294 

pyrenes,  255 

pyxidula,  iii.  expl.  plates,  37 

pyxidide,  iii.  expl.  plates,  37 


Quadrangularc,  folium ,  31 

quadrifid  leaf,  31,  32 

quadvifidum,  folium,  32 


quaterna,  folia, 

59 

quina,  folia, 

39 

quinate  leaf, . 

36 

quinatum,  folium, 

36 

quinquefid  leaf, 

32 

quinquefidum,  folium, 

32 

quinquangulare,  folium, 

31 

quinqucpartitum,  folium 

i 

Zo 

R. 

Raceme, 

291, 

292 

racemosus, 

racemus, 

285,  291, 

,292 

rachis, 

289, 

290 

radiata,  radiate,  corolla, 

139.  iii, 

113 

radiatus,  flos, 

radices  comosx, 

7 

radicle, 

8 

radicula, 

4,8 

radix, 

3 

capillacea, 

6 

— —  bulbosa, 

6,8 

——■  fibrosa, 

6 

fusiformis, 

6,7 

gvanulata, 

6,8 

horizontalis, 

14 

perpendicularis, 

13 

■  ■     -  prsemorsa, 

6,7 

— —  repens, 

14 

tubcrosa, 

6,7 

rameus,  pedunculus, 

71 

ramis  deflexis, 

308 

ramosa,  radix, 

15 

ramosissima,  radix, 

15 

ramosissimus,  caulis, 

23 

Ranunculacere, 

iii.  67 

reclinatus,  caulis, 

22 

receptaculaceum,  nectai 

•ium, 

148 

receptaculum,  commune,  284-  ill-  119- 

reclinatum,  fohum,  42 

reclined  leaf,  42 

recta,  arista,  119 

rccurvata,  arista,  119 

reflexum,  filamentum,  160 

repandx,  cotyledones.  22-1 


INDEX. 


resupinatus,  pedunculus, 

72 

semet, 

161 

rete  corticis, 

49 

semi-amplexicaula,  folia, 

41 

revolute  leaf, 

42 

semicirculares,  cotyledones,            221 

revolutum,  folium, 

42 

sena,  folia, 

39 

revolutus,  cirrus, 

74 

serratum,  perianthium, 

111 

Rhoeadea:, 

iii.  66 

sericea,  corolla, 

137 

rictus, 

135 

sessile, 

294 

rimosx, 

220 

sessilis, 

295 

ringens,  corolla, 

135 

setaceus, 

239 

Ringentes, 

in.  76 

setae  insidens, 

172 

J'OOt, 

3—20 

Siliculosa,                        iii. 

82,  83,  &c. 

rosacea,  corolla, 

136.  iii.  56 

Siliculosac, 

iii.  84 

rosaceous,  or  rose-like,  , 

136 

siliqua, 

180,  185 

roseum, 

254 

Siliquosa,                         iii- 

82,  83,  &c. 

rostellum, 

232 

Siliquosx, 

iii.  84,  85 

rostra ta, 

163 

six-ranked, 

289 

rostratum, 

171 

solitaria,  radicula, 

232,  233 

rotata,  corolla, 

135 

sparsi,  pedunculi. 

71 

Rubiacea:, 

iii.  16 

spatlia, 

117 

rubrum, 

254 

— — —  bivalvis, 

117 

ruffle, 

122, 123 

biflora, 

117 

33 

11/ 

rugosum, 

rugosum,  folium, 

33 

multiflora, 

117 

ruminate, 
rutilum, 

220 
254 

117 

dimidiata, 

117 

Spatbacex,                      13; 

,  118.  iii.  28 

S. 

spathe, 

117,  &c 

Sagittata,  anthera, 

162 

spica,  or  spike, 

288,  289 

sagittate, 

162 

spicate  Filices, 

iii.  162 

Saimentaceae, 

iii.  29,  36 

spina;, 

244 

sarmentosus,  caulis, 

22 

spina,  spine, 

69,  82—85 

scabrum,  germen,  &c, 

33, 171 

spinosum,  folium,  perianth] 

urn,  32, 110 

scales, 

25 

spmosus, 

239 

scaly  bulb,  &c, 

9,73 

splendens,  semen, 

251 

scariose, 

112 

spirales,  cotyledones,  &.C., 

222,  227 

scariosum,  pei'lanthium, 

112 

squamose  bulb, 

9 

sritamentum, 

iii.  6 

squamosus,  bulbus,  pedunculus,  9,  72 

Scitaminese, 

211.  iii.  6 

squarrosum,  perianthium, 

112 

scitum  edulium, 

iii.  6 

Stellate, 

iii.  16 

serine, 

196,  197 

stellata,  folia, 

39 

scrinum, 

196,  197 

stellate  leaves, 

39 

scrobiform, 

250 

stellate,  stellatum,  stigma, 

176 

scrobiforme,  semen, 

250 

Stellated  plants, 

228 

Scrophularise, 

iii.  78,  79 

stellatus,  pappus, 

239 

sccunda,  spica, 

289 

sterilis,  anthera, 

164 

INDEX. 


9parsl,  pedunculi, 

71 

sulphate  of  iron, 

278 

spiral,  spirale,  filamentum, 

159 

lime, 

278 

9plcndens,  nux, 

245 

sulphur,                                  274.  iii.  88 

sh:'Strorsum, 

177 

supera,  s.  ascendens, 

235 

squu  natum,  semell, 

251 

corolla, 

137 

stiff  i id  straight, 

72 

superior,  pagina,  &c, 

43, 137 

stipe, 

28 

superum,  germen, 

171 

stipes, 

28 

111 

stipitatu  .  pappus, 

238 

supinus,  discus, 

43 

stipula,  stipule, 

75—77 

suprafoliaceus,  pedunculus, 

71 

stipulae  c.  trafoliacesc, 

77 

summit, 

161 

77 
76 

Syngenesia,          28,  163.  iii. 

112—124 

gcminz, 

■  latevaies, 

77 

T. 

— — —  oppositifolis, 

77 

Tail, 

241,  242 

■             solitarke, 

77 

tecta,  anthcra  i 

164 

deck!  <x, 

77 

tendril,                              73- 

-75.  iii.  85 

fioirltlinloo 

77 

tenuis,  stylus, 

173 

■  caducae 

77 

teres,  caulis, 

22 

striatum,  foliunr., 

33 

folium, 

34 

251 
23 

teretiuscula,  radicula, 
teretiusculum, 

233 
187 

striatus,  caulis, 

strictum, 

183 

tei-geminum,  folium, 

38 

strictus,  pedunculus, 

72 

terminalis,  spina,  &c,        S3 

,  119,  288 

strigje, 

88 

ternatum,  folium, 

36 

strobile, 

195, 

,  196 

terra  japonica, 

iii.  158 

strobilus, 

195 

testa,  or  shell, 

201,  202 

stylo  inserta,  filamenta, 

159 

bilocularis, 

202 

subcomilea,  semina, 

254 

chartacea, 

201 

subconduplicatx,  cotyledon es, 

221 

coriacea, 

201 

subpubescens,  nux, 

245 

carnosa, 

201 

subrotunda,  capsida, 

181 

Crustacea, 

201 

subrotundum,  foliam,  &c. 

31, 

294 

— —  fungosa, 

201 

subspongiosa,  membrana  interna, 

202 

lapidea, 

202 

subulate, 

31; 

,285 

membranacea. 

201 

subulatum,  folium,  receptaculum, 

,  31, 

ossea, 

20  J 

285 

pellucida, 

201 

succus  communis, 

ii.  26 

spongiosa, 

201 

proprius, 

ii.  2S 

suberosa, 

201 

sulcata,  anthcra, 

163 

unilocularis, 

longitudinalitcr, 

163 

testaceum, 

253 

+  i«nnoi-^»»o'TT. 

163 

testes  of  plants, 

161 

sulcatum,  folium, 

34 

testiculatus,  bulbus, 

sulcatus,  caulis, 

2o 

Tetradynamia,       136,  1T4.  : 

iii.  82—90 

sulphate  of  copper. 

tetrafida, 

INDEX. 


tetrafidum,  109 

tetragona,  capsula,  182 

tetragonus,  stylus,  174 
Tetrandria,            iii.  13—17,  141,  &c. 

Tetrapetali  difformes,  iii.  102 

irregulares,  iii.  102 

tetraphyllum,  114 

telraphyllus,  cirrus,  74 

tetraptcra,  243 

tetrasticha,  289 

thalamus,  282 

floris,  124 

thcca,  196—198 

thermometer  of  Farenheit,  264 

thorny,  239 

three-grained,  183 

thyrse,  293 

thyrsus,  285,  293 

tinctoriae  plantrc,  iii.  71,  105 

tomentosa,  corolla,  137 

tomentose  leaf,  33 

tomentosi,  aculei,  84 

tomentosum,  folium,  33 

tomentosus, 

tomentum, 

torosa,  torose, 

torosum, 

torta,  corolla, 

tortilis,  arista, 

torulosa, 

torva, 


88,  238 
186 
187 
136.  iii.  22 
119 
186 
90 

trachea:,  208,  209.  ii.  26,  28,  29 

trachees,  ii.  29 

transversim  sulcata,  anthera,  163 

trialata,  semina,  242 

triangular  leaf,  31 

triangulate,  folium,  &e.,  31, 171 

Tricocca:,  iii.  52,  145 

tricocca,  capsula,  183 

tricoccous,  183 

trifida,  corolla,  133 

trifidum,  109 

trifidus,  cirrus,  74 

trifiora,  gluma,  118 

trig-onus,  caulis,  23 


Trihilata:, 
triloba, 
trilocularis, 
tripetala,  corolla, 
Tripe  taloidex, 


iii.  44 
182.  iii.  68 

246    I 
13* 
ii      9 


triphyllum,  109,  114.  ir    130 

tripinnatum,  folium,  38 

triptei-ygia,  243 
triqueter,  caulis, 

triquetrum,  34 

folium,  34 

triternatum,  folium,  38 

truncata,  anthera,  163 

truncatum,  folium,  32 

tube,  133 

tubercularis,  radicula,  233 
tuberculatum,  tubercled,  J  :gumen,  187 

tubulata,  corolla,-  'ii.  120 

tubulosum,  folium,  .  34 

tubulous,  or  hollow  le."> ,  34 

tubus,  corollx,  133 

tunic,  200 

tunicated,  or  coated,  bulb,  9,  10 

tunicatus,  bulbus,  9,  1 0 

turbinata,  181 

turbinate,  171 

turbinatum,  germen,  171 

turgidum,  legumen,  187 

turio,  212 

turionifera,  planta,  212 

twisted  corolla,  136 


U. 

Umbel, 

umbella, 

— — — —  axillaris,  axillary, 

concava, 

composita, 

convcxa. 


erecta, 

fastigiata, 

■ oppositifolia, 


simplex, 

terminalis, 

universalis, 


287,  288 
287,  288 
288 
288 
287 
288 
288 
288 
288 
287 
288 
288 


'**; 


*  - 


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InH 


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